tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-58838403575418620322024-03-05T11:13:14.395-08:00The Levant and the Balkans WWIIWorld War II in the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkans. You will find a wide range of political and social views in these articles. This website does not support any 'isms or 'ists! It is solely for educational purposes.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger55125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-59792649203806078022016-10-26T08:48:00.002-07:002016-10-26T08:48:40.246-07:00The Balkans and Barbarossa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
As the Germans had feared, the British began landing soldiers and
aircraft in southern Greece as early as November 1940. Had Mussolini
delivered on his claim that he would stroll into Athens within a month,
then the Balkans (with the exception of Greece) would probably have
remained an island of peace for most of the war. But with the planned
invasion of the Soviet Union, Hitler could not afford to have his rear
threatened by British forces. Mussolini’s failure to subjugate Greece
provoked the Nazi military sweep through the Balkans.<br />
<br />
<br />
Mussolini was able to pay Hitler back ‘in his own coin’ at their
summit meeting in Florence on 28 October, the day of the attack on
Greece. Far from admonishing Mussolini, as il Duce had expected, Hitler
congratulated him briefly and advised him to concentrate on grabbing
Crete. Mussolini ignored the advice. Although he did not know it, his
casual announcement of the invasion had not taken Hitler by surprise.
The Führer’s information-gathering network was too good for that. On
receiving the same intelligence, Ernst von Weizsäcker, Undersecretary of
State at the Außenamt, ‘set about making a very clear demarche. I drew
up an unambiguous instruction to Rome that we should not allow our ally,
who was weak enough in any case, to bring new countries into the war
without our advice and consent as allies. Ribbentrop approved this, but
Hitler said he did not want to cross Mussolini. Hitler’s silence meant
indirectly giving Italy the sign to go ahead with her . . . step in the
Balkans.’<br />
<br />
<br />
Hitler even offered Mussolini paratroop support for an operation
against Crete. ‘People are too prone to think of the Mediterranean as an
east–west channel for shipping’, observed ‘Wild Bill’ Donovan, the head
of America’s intelligence service, the OSS, in a memo to Roosevelt sent
from the Balkans a month after the Italian offensive had begun. ‘It
should be thought of primarily as a no-man’s land between Europe and
Africa, with two great forces facing each other from the north and the
south. Germany controls, either directly or indirectly, most of the
northern battle-line on the continent of Europe. It is imperative for
the British – or the British and the Americans – to control the southern
front along the Mediterranean shore of Africa.’ Donovan had not quite
read Hitler’s mind, but it was a passable summary of what the Führer was
thinking.<br />
<br />
<br />
Hitler could have blocked the Italian invasion of Greece but did not.
First, he wanted to prevent Britain from establishing an airbase in
Thessaloniki from which British bombers could reach the oil fields in
Ploeşti. But he had a still grander reason. Operation ‘Seelöwe’, the
invasion of Britain, had failed, and Hitler had dropped the idea of a
second attempt. He had switched instead to the so-called ‘peripheral
strategy’ which involved cutting communications between Great Britain
and its imperial outposts. At the time of the Italian invasion, Hitler
was planning an assault on Gibraltar and a push, with the Italians,
towards Suez. If Germany and Italy could seize Crete, then they would
control the main naval and aerial staging post in the Mediterranean.
They could monitor and regulate traffic along an east–west and a
north–south axis. Hitler accepted and even supported Italy’s Greek
operation within the context of the ‘peripheral strategy’ against
England. But his modest enthusiasm for the offensive soon soured when he
realized it had been planned and executed by a clown. The British
occupied Crete on 6 November while the Italians were still bogged down
in the mud of Epirus just 24 kilometres from their base camp. ‘A
matchless dilettantism’, fulminated Goebbels in December when the extent
of Italy’s failure became clear.<br />
<br />
<br />
The Italians have ruined the military prestige of the Axis. This is
why the Balkans have become such a stubborn problem . . . So we must now
intervene. Not to help them but to run the English out of Crete where
they have installed themselves. They must get out of there. The Führer
would prefer to see a peace deal between Rome and Athens but it is a
difficult policy to sell. Mussolini has really messed this one up . . .
If only he had occupied Crete straight away as the Führer had advised.
But Rome is incorrigible.<br />
<br />
<br />
By this time, Germany’s need to intervene in the Balkans had become
still more pressing. Vyacheslav Molotov, the Soviet Foreign Minister,
arrived in Berlin on the afternoon of 12 November 1940 for two days of
talks. Hitler wished to invite the Soviet Union to join Germany, Italy
and Japan in the Tripartite Pact. Were Stalin to accept the offer to
join the Axis, this would create the mightiest political alliance in
history, stretching from the Atlantic and Mediterranean to the Pacific.
Hitler had hit upon the idea of incorporating the Soviet Union into his
scheme partly to pre-empt a future alliance of the Soviet Union, Britain
and, possibly, the United States, and partly because he had become
anxious about the gradual westward expansion of the Soviet Union through
Finland, the Baltics, Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. In the
Molotov–Ribbentrop accord of August 1939, Hitler had effectively
recognized the Balkans as a Russian sphere of interest. Meanwhile,
however, Germany’s interest in the region had become more urgent. By
persuading the Soviet Union to sign up to the Tripartite Pact, Hitler
hoped, among other things, to extinguish Soviet influence in the
Balkans. Berlin offered to compensate Moscow by supporting Soviet
expansion in what Hitler termed the ‘Großasiatischer Raum’ (greater
Asian space). When Molotov asked what ‘Großasiatischer Raum’ actually
meant, the Germans were unable to give him a concrete answer; it has
been assumed that it meant India, Central Asia and Iran.<br />
<br />
<br />
As Hitler unveiled his vision of the new order, covering half the
globe, Molotov sat impassively and, having heard the Führer out, stated
he agreed ‘in principle’ to the idea. He then proceeded to raise
difficulties about all the individual issues that Hitler had hoped to
resolve in Germany’s favour. The Foreign Minister mentioned Finland,
Poland and Romania but he also raised for the first time the question of
Bulgaria. Molotov claimed that Britain was threatening the security of
the Black Sea Straits, which had prompted the Soviet Union to consider
an offer ‘of a Russian guarantee to Bulgaria’.<br />
<br />
<br />
Molotov’s intervention threatened Wehrmacht plans to invade Greece,
which included sending its divisions through Bulgaria. Stalin’s response
to the Tripartite proposal arrived by letter two weeks after Molotov’s
visit. The Soviet leader was adamant on the issue of Bulgaria: ‘2.
Provided that within the next few months the security of the Soviet
Union in the Straits is assured by the conclusion of a mutual assistance
pact between the Soviet Union and Bulgaria . . . and by the
establishment of a base for land and naval forces of the USSR within
range of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles by means of a long-term lease.’<br />
<br />
<br />
Hitler needed the Balkans for economic reasons. He could not tolerate
Soviet interference in the region, and certainly not a Soviet military
presence there. Persuaded that Stalin was becoming too conceited and
dangerous as an ally, Hitler decided to destroy the Soviet Union once
and for all. The great gamble was begun.<br />
<br />
<br />
This momentous decision . . . had immediate and far-reaching
consequences. Firstly, the war against Britain now turned into a
secondary matter, and the ‘peripheral strategy’ was therefore eliminated
at a stroke. Secondly, the mess created by Italy’s failure in Greece
turned from a secondary nuisance within the framework of the ‘peripheral
strategy’ (and not wholly unqualified, as it had presented the Germans
with the opportunity to install themselves in the eastern Mediterranean
while circumventing Italian objections) into a first-class blunder from
the point of view of the future war against Russia.<br />
<br />
<br />
After Greece’s seizure of Korçe, an optimistic editorial in the New
York Times suggested that ‘it probably needs only a comparatively small
number of British divisions with accompanying artillery, tanks and
airplanes to bring it [victory over the Italians and control of the
northern Mediterranean] to fulfillment. But where are the divisions and
whence are they coming? Is British land armament and trained man power
yet sufficient to spare enough for this providential chance? If the
answer is affirmative, this may prove to be a turning point of the war.’
The answer was negative; it was a turning point nonetheless.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-77597829510972391712016-08-04T22:52:00.001-07:002016-08-04T22:52:23.661-07:00<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-image="http://www.armchairgeneral.com/wordpress/wp-content/image/2012/special items/bulgariaww2/bulgaria-area-map-ww2-600.jpg" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://www.armchairgeneral.com/bulgaria-in-world-war-ii.htm">Bulgaria in World War II</a></h4>
In Bulgaria's muggy capital of Sofia during August 1939 Tsar Boris III thought about his future and that of his Balkan nation. Bulgaria is small and weak; how do we stay independent? How does Bulgaria recover territories lost earlier in the century? And how do I stay in power?</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-11102983559386320712016-08-04T22:44:00.001-07:002016-08-04T22:44:31.125-07:00Clash at Poljana – The WW2 Battle That Was Fought A Week After VE Day<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2013/10/09/poljana-the-ww2-battle-that-was-fought-a-week-after-ve-day/">Clash at Poljana - The WW2 Battle That Was Fought A Week After VE Day</a></h4>
Last January, MHN.com published an article about a series of battles from history that were fought the opposing sides had already agreed to suspend hostilities. The piece included such dust ups as the Battle of New Orleans, which was waged between British redcoats and American troops in January 1815 - two weeks after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-81780966996631609532016-03-11T00:38:00.002-08:002016-03-11T00:38:23.458-08:00The Balkans and Barbarossa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
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As the Germans had feared, the British began landing
soldiers and aircraft in southern Greece as early as November 1940. Had
Mussolini delivered on his claim that he would stroll into Athens within a
month, then the Balkans (with the exception of Greece) would probably have
remained an island of peace for most of the war. But with the planned invasion
of the Soviet Union, Hitler could not afford to have his rear threatened by
British forces. Mussolini’s failure to subjugate Greece provoked the Nazi
military sweep through the Balkans.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Mussolini was able to pay Hitler back ‘in his own coin’ at
their summit meeting in Florence on 28 October, the day of the attack on
Greece. Far from admonishing Mussolini, as il Duce had expected, Hitler
congratulated him briefly and advised him to concentrate on grabbing Crete.
Mussolini ignored the advice. Although he did not know it, his casual
announcement of the invasion had not taken Hitler by surprise. The Führer’s
information-gathering network was too good for that. On receiving the same
intelligence, Ernst von Weizsäcker, Undersecretary of State at the Außenamt,
‘set about making a very clear demarche. I drew up an unambiguous instruction
to Rome that we should not allow our ally, who was weak enough in any case, to
bring new countries into the war without our advice and consent as allies.
Ribbentrop approved this, but Hitler said he did not want to cross Mussolini. </div>
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Hitler’s silence meant indirectly giving Italy the sign to go ahead with
her . . . step in the Balkans.’</div>
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Hitler even offered Mussolini paratroop support for an
operation against Crete. ‘People are too prone to think of the Mediterranean as
an east–west channel for shipping’, observed ‘Wild Bill’ Donovan, the head of
America’s intelligence service, the OSS, in a memo to Roosevelt sent from the
Balkans a month after the Italian offensive had begun. ‘It should be thought of
primarily as a no-man’s land between Europe and Africa, with two great forces
facing each other from the north and the south. Germany controls, either
directly or indirectly, most of the northern battle-line on the continent of
Europe. It is imperative for the British – or the British and the
Americans – to control the southern front along the Mediterranean shore of
Africa.’ Donovan had not quite read Hitler’s mind, but it was a passable
summary of what the Führer was thinking.</div>
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Hitler could have blocked the Italian invasion of Greece but
did not. First, he wanted to prevent Britain from establishing an airbase in
Thessaloniki from which British bombers could reach the oil fields in Ploeşti.
But he had a still grander reason. Operation ‘Seelöwe’, the invasion of
Britain, had failed, and Hitler had dropped the idea of a second attempt. He
had switched instead to the so-called ‘peripheral strategy’ which involved
cutting communications between Great Britain and its imperial outposts. At the
time of the Italian invasion, Hitler was planning an assault on Gibraltar and a
push, with the Italians, towards Suez. If Germany and Italy could seize Crete,
then they would control the main naval and aerial staging post in the
Mediterranean. They could monitor and regulate traffic along an east–west and a
north–south axis. Hitler accepted and even supported Italy’s Greek operation
within the context of the ‘peripheral strategy’ against England. But his modest
enthusiasm for the offensive soon soured when he realized it had been planned
and executed by a clown. The British occupied Crete on 6 November while the
Italians were still bogged down in the mud of Epirus just 24 kilometres from
their base camp. ‘A matchless dilettantism’, fulminated Goebbels in December
when the extent of Italy’s failure became clear.</div>
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The Italians have ruined the military prestige of the Axis.
This is why the Balkans have become such a stubborn
problem . . . So we must now intervene. Not to help them but to
run the English out of Crete where they have installed themselves. They must
get out of there. The Führer would prefer to see a peace deal between Rome and
Athens but it is a difficult policy to sell. Mussolini has really messed this
one up . . . If only he had occupied Crete straight away as the
Führer had advised. But Rome is incorrigible.</div>
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By this time, Germany’s need to intervene in the Balkans had
become still more pressing. Vyacheslav Molotov, the Soviet Foreign Minister,
arrived in Berlin on the afternoon of 12 November 1940 for two days of talks.
Hitler wished to invite the Soviet Union to join Germany, Italy and Japan in
the Tripartite Pact. Were Stalin to accept the offer to join the Axis, this
would create the mightiest political alliance in history, stretching from the
Atlantic and Mediterranean to the Pacific. Hitler had hit upon the idea of
incorporating the Soviet Union into his scheme partly to pre-empt a future
alliance of the Soviet Union, Britain and, possibly, the United States, and
partly because he had become anxious about the gradual westward expansion of
the Soviet Union through Finland, the Baltics, Bessarabia and northern
Bukovina. In the Molotov–Ribbentrop accord of August 1939, Hitler had
effectively recognized the Balkans as a Russian sphere of interest. Meanwhile,
however, Germany’s interest in the region had become more urgent. By persuading
the Soviet Union to sign up to the Tripartite Pact, Hitler hoped, among other
things, to extinguish Soviet influence in the Balkans. </div>
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Berlin offered to
compensate Moscow by supporting Soviet expansion in what Hitler termed the
‘Großasiatischer Raum’ (greater Asian space). When Molotov asked what
‘Großasiatischer Raum’ actually meant, the Germans were unable to give him a
concrete answer; it has been assumed that it meant India, Central Asia and
Iran.</div>
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As Hitler unveiled his vision of the new order, covering
half the globe, Molotov sat impassively and, having heard the Führer out,
stated he agreed ‘in principle’ to the idea. He then proceeded to raise
difficulties about all the individual issues that Hitler had hoped to resolve
in Germany’s favour. The Foreign Minister mentioned Finland, Poland and Romania
but he also raised for the first time the question of Bulgaria. Molotov claimed
that Britain was threatening the security of the Black Sea Straits, which had
prompted the Soviet Union to consider an offer ‘of a Russian guarantee to
Bulgaria’.</div>
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Molotov’s intervention threatened Wehrmacht plans to invade
Greece, which included sending its divisions through Bulgaria. Stalin’s
response to the Tripartite proposal arrived by letter two weeks after Molotov’s
visit. The Soviet leader was adamant on the issue of Bulgaria: ‘2. Provided
that within the next few months the security of the Soviet Union in the Straits
is assured by the conclusion of a mutual assistance pact between the Soviet
Union and Bulgaria . . . and by the establishment of a base for
land and naval forces of the USSR within range of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles
by means of a long-term lease.’</div>
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Hitler needed the Balkans for economic reasons. He could not
tolerate Soviet interference in the region, and certainly not a Soviet military
presence there. Persuaded that Stalin was becoming too conceited and dangerous
as an ally, Hitler decided to destroy the Soviet Union once and for all. The
great gamble was begun.</div>
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<br /></div>
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This momentous decision . . . had immediate
and far-reaching consequences. Firstly, the war against Britain now turned into
a secondary matter, and the ‘peripheral strategy’ was therefore eliminated at a
stroke. Secondly, the mess created by Italy’s failure in Greece turned from a
secondary nuisance within the framework of the ‘peripheral strategy’ (and not
wholly unqualified, as it had presented the Germans with the opportunity to
install themselves in the eastern Mediterranean while circumventing Italian
objections) into a first-class blunder from the point of view of the future war
against Russia.</div>
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After Greece’s seizure of Korçe, an optimistic editorial in
the New York Times suggested that ‘it probably needs only a comparatively small
number of British divisions with accompanying artillery, tanks and airplanes to
bring it [victory over the Italians and control of the northern Mediterranean]
to fulfillment. But where are the divisions and whence are they coming? Is
British land armament and trained man power yet sufficient to spare enough for
this providential chance? If the answer is affirmative, this may prove to be a
turning point of the war.’ The answer was negative; it was a turning point
nonetheless.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-70722049822140362302016-03-11T00:32:00.000-08:002016-03-11T00:32:46.114-08:00The road to hell, 1940–1: Greece<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgapVALkbdy6z7f8b9KfiEro3gtg4i6qmnTfENPdsGI8WoGI4eV0OLDbX4WEJK-8s482At2TT7WhmKziGMXAgwMNZMEN4FzS1v0bd1EsjFRT9LVTdqZeWn-PlKL6aLTP4nI9bM1umCNnr2w/s1600/1940_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgapVALkbdy6z7f8b9KfiEro3gtg4i6qmnTfENPdsGI8WoGI4eV0OLDbX4WEJK-8s482At2TT7WhmKziGMXAgwMNZMEN4FzS1v0bd1EsjFRT9LVTdqZeWn-PlKL6aLTP4nI9bM1umCNnr2w/s400/1940_1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Greek Troops. </b></i></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxbW1EdP8Rle11AHePLzO8NtqFINh6-3jJp0RGXa3oVp-e60ntFV_IPmP6Y55P1aDnarb0mmpFdjGOraqOvO8pMp0m5WRtMoadLLEAmEgQvbYFFMCIAWbGhJNVlDN2Cqlrtb_OHcF19kxT/s1600/Greek_artilery_Morava_Nov_1940.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxbW1EdP8Rle11AHePLzO8NtqFINh6-3jJp0RGXa3oVp-e60ntFV_IPmP6Y55P1aDnarb0mmpFdjGOraqOvO8pMp0m5WRtMoadLLEAmEgQvbYFFMCIAWbGhJNVlDN2Cqlrtb_OHcF19kxT/s400/Greek_artilery_Morava_Nov_1940.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Signor Emanuele Grazzi was tired and worried. Motoring along
the empty road from Athens to Kifissia with the military attaché, Colonel Luigi
Mondini, he was briefly cheered by the clear sky, which was, remembers Mondini,
‘dotted with the myriads of stars that make the sky of Attica so marvellous’.
It was a quarter to three in the morning on 28 October 1940, in southern
Greece’s Indian summer. The piece of paper Grazzi was about to deliver to the
Greek dictator, General Ioannis Metaxas, would bring that late summer mood to
an end. The sentry at Metaxas’s modest two-storey house mistook the Italian
flag on Grazzi’s car for the tricolour. Metaxas had been told that the French
consul wished to see him urgently and so, half-asleep, he was baffled to see
the Italian minister instead. Still somewhat bemused, Metaxas ushered Grazzi
into a sitting room furnished in the dictator’s unassuming lower-middle-class
style. He offered his visitor a seat on the green divan in front of a large
desk, and apologized for the fact that he had not yet changed out of his
nightshirt and dressing gown. Outside the door, Metaxas’s wife, Lela, listened
quietly. ‘Their conversation began calmly’, she wrote later, ‘but soon I heard
an animated exchange, and an angry tone in my husband’s voice followed by a
loud bang of the palm of his hand on top of the desk. This was the exact moment
of the Οχι! [No!] which was followed by Grazzi’s departure.’ In his memoirs,
the Italian does not recall Metaxas’s becoming overexcited, nor does he
remember the Prime Minister banging the table and shouting ‘No!’ Whether true
or not, the rumour became fact throughout Greece within a matter of days –
the Οχι War had begun.</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Grazzi’s embarrassment was genuine. A hard worker and an
admirer of Greece, his attempts to calm the troubled waters of Greco–Italian
relations made no impact whatsoever on his boss, Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italy’s
whimsically irresponsible Foreign Minister. Even if Metaxas had so desired, the
ultimatum had been worded so as to preclude Greece’s capitulation to the
Italians. Benito Mussolini was set on invading and occupying Greece, not
because this might be of any strategic value to Italy but, as Ciano reported,
because the Italian dictator was furious with Hitler. Without telling Mussolini
before the event (not for the first time), the Führer announced on 11 October
that the Luftwaffe had assumed control of the Ploeşti oil fields ‘in accordance
with the Romanian request’. Ciano saw a blustering Mussolini that day: ‘He says
that this has impressed Italian public opinion very deeply’, Ciano wrote,
quoting Mussolini as saying, ‘“Hitler always faces me with a fait accompli.
This time I am going to pay him back in his own coin. He will find out from the
papers that I have occupied Greece. In this way the equilibrium will be
re-established.”’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hitler’s consistent refusal to inform Mussolini of any major
operations he was planning wounded the Italian’s excessive pride, and it was
thus in a fit of pique that Mussolini decided on the invasion of Greece,
allowing a mere two weeks for preparations. Ciano backed his leader
enthusiastically although he was alarmed to note that the three heads of the General Staff have unanimously pronounced
themselves against it. The present forces are insufficient, and the Navy does
not feel that it can carry out a landing at Prevesa [in northern Greece]
because the water is too shallow . . . </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Badoglio foresees the
prolongation of the war, and with it the exhaustion of our already-meagre
resources. I listen, and do not argue. I insist that, from a political point of
view, the moment is good. Greece is isolated. Turkey will not move. Neither
will Yugoslavia. If the Bulgarians enter the war it will be on our side. From
the military point of view I express no opinion. Badoglio must, without any
hesitation, repeat to Mussolini what he has told me. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Notwithstanding his habitual tendency to equivocate, Marshal
Pietro Badoglio, chief of the general staff, was trying to indicate the sheer
lunacy of an assault from southern Albania through the Pindus massif without
adequate preparations. A year earlier, the general staff had ordered General
Alfredo Guzzoni to formulate a detailed plan for an invasion of Greece. Guzzoni
concluded that it would require eighteen to twenty divisions and that the
operation would take three months. Now, Mussolini was expecting nine divisions
(including one useless cavalry division) to do the same job with advance notice
of a fortnight.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ciano pretended not to listen to the military objections. He
certainly understood the implications of what the Chief of Staff was saying.
But had he acknowledged them then he would have been obliged to relay such
serious misgivings to his father-in-law, il Duce. And Ciano never questioned
Mussolini’s political wisdom.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mussolini’s contribution to the Axis war effort stood in
inverse proportion to the damage he visited on his own new order. His régime is
surely one of the most powerful historical arguments against autocracy,
dictatorship and the adulation of ‘strongmen’. No wartime episode demonstrates
this better than the Greco–Italian war of 1940–1, which caused tens of
thousands of unnecessary Greek and Italian casualties. In April 1939, Britain
had extended a security guarantee to Romania and Greece in the wake of
Czechoslovakia’s dismemberment. Metaxas did not discourage British protection
but he kept London at arm’s length in order to stress Greece’s essential
neutrality. Germany was now soaking up the bulk of Greek exports, and was able
to apply economic pressure. Metaxas was balanced delicately between the two
camps. Italy’s attack put an end to all that, placing Greece unequivocally on
the side of the Allies. In theory, Metaxas might now place Greek territory at
the disposal of British armed forces.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Metaxas was deeply troubled by the realization that Greece
was at war with Italy. He had received much of his military training in
Germany, and nurtured fond memories too of many years spent in Siena. To be
sure, Metaxas was pragmatic; he saw Germany and Italy as greater threats to
Greece’s independence than Britain. But his dictatorship resembled other
Mediterranean régimes. The last thing he wanted was for Greece to be at war
with anyone. Despite this, he showed great resolve, convinced that, as his wife
recalled, ‘they [the Italians] can come, we are ready. We will defeat them.’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Metaxas’s road to power had been smoothed by the
self-destructive actions of the pro-Venizelos officers in the Greek military
during the first half of the decade. The National Schism, the battle between
monarchists and republicans which was fought out primarily and catastrophically
within the army, had negated all attempts to establish a coherent democracy
during the interwar years. While in private Metaxas, a monarchist, had been
inclined for a long time towards dictatorship, it did not follow that the
republican, Venizelist forces were therefore principled supporters of
democracy. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Indeed, as Venizelos neared his death, his contempt for the
democratic process deepened. The republican officers made a final attempt to
secure a monopoly on power in March 1935 when they mounted a disorganized coup,
which quickly collapsed. The monarchists then exploited the widespread popular
disaffection with Venizelos by holding a referendum on the monarchy. King
George II (1922–4, 1935–47) returned in triumph. After an interim period,
Metaxas proclaimed himself Prime Minister in August 1936 and assumed
dictatorial powers, all in alliance with the King, who retained a considerable,
if discreet influence on the military strongman.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The centrepiece of Metaxas’s attempt to build popular
legitimacy on corporatist lines was the National Youth Organization (EON),
whose members took centre stage in many large parades glorifying Metaxas’s role
as ‘the first peasant’, ‘the first worker’, and so on. Squat, with a round face
and circular glasses, Metaxas was probably the least charismatic of all Balkan
dictators. He employed a brutish chief of the secret police and kept his
opponents in shocking conditions on island prisons. But in contrast to many of
his peers, he stopped short of murder and systematic torture.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The August 4th Régime was careful to soothe the peasantry by
lowering its excessive tax burden. The key to the stability of Metaxas’s
régime, however, lay with the military. When Metaxas took over, the
overwhelming majority of the 5,000 officers were at least passively
pro-monarchist. Like most other European leaders from the mid-1930s onwards, Metaxas
identified his primary task as the overhaul and modernization of the armed
forces. This gave him a distinct advantage in suppressing the resurgence of
republican sentiment in the military. Soldiers were given new guns and
accelerated promotion.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Greece was anti-revisionist. The national catastrophe of
1923 had actually led to the collapse of the Megali idea, of a Greater Greece.
None of the major political forces wished Greece to make significant claims
against any neighbour and in the interwar period Greece had established good
political relations with its old enemy, Turkey. The threat of Bulgarian
revisionism in western Thrace and Macedonia led Greece into the Balkan Pact
and, at the beginning of the Second World War, all Greek leaders recognized Bulgaria
as the major threat to their country’s security (although they remained wary of
Yugoslav intentions regarding Salonika). But Metaxas began planning for a
possible Italian invasion from Albania soon after he assumed power. If for
nothing else, Metaxas deserves credit for this foresight.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The mountains of Epirus (Chamuria, as the Albanians know it)
are carved into spectacular, craggy canyons that appear unexpectedly in the
walls of stone. They are crisscrossed with small rivers which usually pose only
a minor obstacle to the serious walker. But as often happens in autumn and
spring, the mountains in the early morning of 28 October were covered in grey,
threatening clouds. As Italian troops entered the first passes of the mountain
range, these clouds released a torrent of rain. Italian bomber command was
forced to ground all its planes, denying the military the use of the one arm in
which they enjoyed a clear superiority over the Greeks. The Italians moved
forwards in appalling visibility as the earth turned to thick mud. Within hours
the little streams became unfordable rapids. The Italian force was divided into
two main sections. The first, comprising some 55,000 men, was to drive down
through Epirus. The second army group of 30,000 men was to strike out from
Korçe south-east into Macedonia before moving westwards to link up with the
larger force. This would then cut Greece in two, leaving Thessaloniki hanging
ready ‘to drop into Mussolini’s hands like a ripe fruit’. That, at least, was
the general idea; but on Day 2 the navy had to call off its planned occupation
of Corfu because of rough seas.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The troops on the Epirot front became bogged down even
before they had encountered the enemy, and in the first two days several
thousand men became hopelessly lost. Spearheading the assault was the Alpine
Julia division, comprising 10,800 men and twenty guns. The advance units pushed
forward doggedly after crossing the river Sarandaporos, which had burst its
banks. They struggled on as far as the pretty hillside village of Konitsa. The
Greeks had gained enough time to organize a robust welcome. The Julia Division
withdrew under fire, but in good order. Unlike il Duce and Ciano, who were
celebrating in Rome, the soldiers of this crack unit already knew that the invasion
was a débâcle.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Back inside Albania, supply lines broke down. A special
envoy for the War Ministry reported on the eve of war that 1,750 lorries would
be required for the invasion force. Three weeks later, the operational
commander, General Count Sebastiano Visconti Prasca, complained that ‘only 107
lorries had been landed in Albania’. The majority of these had fallen foul of
Albania’s dirt tracks. Small wonder that Visconti Prasca was so impatient.
After all, this aristocratic general had incautiously promised Mussolini that
he would deliver a ‘colpo di mano in grande’ in northern Greece from which the
enemy would not recover. This, he argued, would leave open the road to Athens;
within a matter of weeks, the Italian flag would fly over the Acropolis. In fact,
within ten days, Visconti Prasca had absolutely no idea what was happening to
his troops over the border. This did not dissuade him from sending messages
back to Rome claiming they were advancing rapidly on a wide front. Inspired by
such mendacity, Ciano, a qualified pilot, dropped in on Tirana to make his
contribution to the war effort. ‘The sun has finally come out’, the Foreign
Minister enthused in his diary entry for 1 November. ‘I take advantage of it to
carry out a spectacular bombardment of Salonika. On my return I am attacked by
Greek planes. All goes well. Two of theirs fell, but I must confess that it is
the first time that I had them on my tail. It is an ugly sensation.’ Ciano’s
raid destroyed the building next to the hall where the Italians of Thessaloniki
were being mustered, pending their deportation.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Visconti Prasca could dissemble no longer as news filtered
through that the Italian forward divisions were dispersed, lost and suffering
severe casualties. Having allowed the Italians to stretch their supply lines,
the Greek army had co-opted the enthusiastic local villagers to help transport
their weaponry and supplies across the difficult terrain. The men took up arms,
creating their own units or joining the main army. The women volunteered to act
as bearers, scaling mountains with cannon parts and ammunition roped to their
back. ‘We tie thick ropes around their waists’, explained Warrant Officer
Simetzis, ‘and policemen standing on higher levels pull them
up . . . And these women, heavily loaded as they are, climb up
like goats, now clinging to a rock, now grasping at stray roots, buckling under
the weight of their load and always in danger of falling into the precipice
which opens below them. They climb up and down continuously and often throw
rocks at the enemy below who have advanced as far as the huts of
Tservatiotika.’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Italians dodging the rocks thrown by the mountain women
were from the Julia Division, the toughest group of soldiers on the front line.
After five days, with no supplies forthcoming, their advance units were living
on dry biscuits. Sensing the enemy’s weakness, the Greek Commander General
Papagos wheeled round on the right flank, pushing back the division covering
the Julia’s left flank and cutting their communications completely. Within a
fortnight, the Italian army was in general retreat. A week later, Papagos was
able to lead his troops into Korçe, the main town in south-eastern Albania, and
a week after that the Italians were driven from Pogradec in central-eastern
Albania. The Greeks knew that if they were to push the Italians back into the
sea this would snap their own supply lines and so instead they decided to keep
the enemy tied up in central Albania. A third of the country was now under
Greek control.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
That winter, Mussolini could not contain his delight when it
snowed in Rome. In a jovial mood that Christmas Eve, he told Ciano: ‘This snow
and cold are very good.’ Perhaps inspired by the central heating in the Palazzo
Venezia, Mussolini warmed to his theme. ‘In this way our good-for-nothing men
and this mediocre race will be improved. One of the principal reasons I have
desired the reforestation of the Apennines has been to make Italy colder and
more snowy.’ As he spoke, thousands of Italians across the Otranto straits were
putting his theory about climate and the Mediterranean character to the test,
as the Italian writer, Mario Cervi, has documented:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Frostbite worked havoc among the men of the Ninth Army, who
spent months at the highest altitudes, sleeping in the open without proper
winter clothing, often living in undrained trenches amid the mud and
snow . . . Among these long-suffering troops, fighting for
reasons unknown to them an enemy they did not hate, the dreaded ‘dry gangrene’
or ‘white death’ started insidiously to spread. Its onset was painless. Legs
swelled above the ankle, all feeling disappeared from the foot, the flesh
changed colour, turned purple and then blackish. Then there was the agonizing
journey to overcrowded field hospitals of men who often had to be carried
bodily by their comrades because of the lack of stretchers, and were then
loaded on to lorries that caused agony at every jolt on the appalling roads to
Valona or Durazzo or Tirana, where they awaited transport to Apulia.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-69101548243265521122015-09-13T09:15:00.001-07:002015-09-13T09:15:16.344-07:00THE CHETNIKS <br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJMEC-V8QY5oYzD675ijxorLXjY_BtkstVzooAeiCLJT2Ltng1jbfmpVFbgQozeWIlG6gTNsOdRZHbCPQFtRGcTirjo2gg9LpweusqtK9prTAsCDkbVgB3h6m2jowFYvuxgijbDbsEalkj/s1600/Chetniks_pose_with_German_soldiers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJMEC-V8QY5oYzD675ijxorLXjY_BtkstVzooAeiCLJT2Ltng1jbfmpVFbgQozeWIlG6gTNsOdRZHbCPQFtRGcTirjo2gg9LpweusqtK9prTAsCDkbVgB3h6m2jowFYvuxgijbDbsEalkj/s400/Chetniks_pose_with_German_soldiers.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Chetniks pose with German soldiers</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<i><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg40dlcfCGlCEOmWd3Mt1UG4AnIjnl_d7IyzHIU5-26wdPZsbsCTb4n0RzqfmBaeMMZi3el_GpgArYrEuRDgLZJKHc_yrtvykP8FbKTk_QSzs0Er1mdMaGctixcViwA0Apb-ySaJZcjlfgv/s1600/dbfzdzbfzdbf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg40dlcfCGlCEOmWd3Mt1UG4AnIjnl_d7IyzHIU5-26wdPZsbsCTb4n0RzqfmBaeMMZi3el_GpgArYrEuRDgLZJKHc_yrtvykP8FbKTk_QSzs0Er1mdMaGctixcViwA0Apb-ySaJZcjlfgv/s400/dbfzdzbfzdbf.jpg" width="400" /></a></b></i></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b> A German military officer converses with Kosta Pecanac (the pre-war president of the Chetniks) and Dazafer Deva (a collaborator from Kosovo) in Podvjevo.</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><b> Pećanac Chetniks. The Pećanac Chetniks, also known as the Black Chetniks were a Chetnik irregular military force which operated in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia under the leadership of vojvoda Kosta Pećanac. They were loyal to the German-backed Serbian puppet government and fought against Yugoslav Partisans and the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović from 1941 to 1943.</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
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From the beginning Tito's claim to lead Yugoslav resistance
was challenged by Col. Dragoljub ('Draza') Mihailović, who formed in mid-I941
his mainly Serbian 'Chetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav Army' ('chetnik' is the
traditional Serbian name for guerilla) on Ravna Gora Mountain in Western
Serbia, although until March 1943 Kosta Pecanać controlled 8,000 rival Chetniks
in Macedonia. Mihailović's Chetniks had mobile (active) and territorial
companies, formed into battalions and brigades led by civilians styled
'chieftain' (vojvoda) or by Army officers. Some 10,000 Chetniks fought
alongside the Partisans in July 1941, and by 1943 there were 30,000 mobile
troops. After November 1941 Partisan-Chetnik cooperation deteriorated into
armed hostility; for Mihailović, now Minister of War to the Yugoslav
government-in-exile, and receiving Allied aid, saw in Tito a deadly rival, and
Communism as anathema to his Serbian' nationalism. After January 1943 his
troops were re-designated 'Yugoslav Army of the Homeland', fighting Germans,
Italians, Croats and Partisans alike. </div>
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Throughout 1942 Chetnik fortunes steadily improved. In
January 1943 they were re-organised, and based on a three-man 'trojka' cell.
Between 15 and 30 Trojke formed a company, three companies a battalion, three
battalions a brigade, three to five brigades a 'corps', named after a local
river or mountain and often only 2,500 strong. Troops were under ten Area
Commands-Serbia (Corps I to 37); Stari Ras (38 and 39); Montenegro-Sandjak (40
to 45); cast Bosnia-Herzegovina (46 to 54); Western Bosnia (55 to 57); Dalmatia
& Coast (58 to 63); Slovenia-Istria (64 to 67): Southern Serbia (i.e.
Macedonia) (68); Backa-Baranja; Srem. Mobile forces were extracted from these
units and designated 'Flying Brigades' and 'Shock Corps'. </div>
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With early 1943 came disaster. The Chetniks were badly
mauled by Tito at the Neretva River, and retreated from Bosnia and Montenegro
into Serbia to defend the Chetnik heartland. Meanwhile Allied aid was switched
to the Partisans, whom King Petar now recognised. In March 1944 Mihailović
re-formed his corps into 'Groups of Corps' 1 to 12, and 'Groups of Shock
Corps'. The elite 4th Group of Shock Corps, with 9,000 men, defended South-West
Serbia, but after initial success was forced back. The arrival of Soviet troops
compelled a dispirited Mihailović, now totally isolated, to retreat in October
with his depleted forces to take refuge in the Bosnian mountains. His hostility
to the Partisans had led his movement along a dangerous path, beginning with a
simple disagreement over immediate objectives, but leading in many cases to
outright collaboration with Axis forces against the Partisans. This had robbed
the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetniks" target="_blank">Chetniks</a> of their credibility, both at home and with the Allies.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-38116245704227313822015-09-13T09:01:00.002-07:002015-09-13T09:01:45.020-07:0021st "Waffen-Gebirgs Division der SS" - the Skanderbeg<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYyy16qApuInGTl4TOodVglRAzB7Q-MJ2tCNEIPYlW1HmmINKb0zq3Ci8MIdfmiHxWiw5zvrSnSqpM9SvqjBFWGHQmaRhz_90n1XeG-5Axr-HMOk-VibmDXj-QYAtGsp31Eg7srZ1n0z_E/s1600/SS-Standartenf_hrer_Karl_von_Krempler.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYyy16qApuInGTl4TOodVglRAzB7Q-MJ2tCNEIPYlW1HmmINKb0zq3Ci8MIdfmiHxWiw5zvrSnSqpM9SvqjBFWGHQmaRhz_90n1XeG-5Axr-HMOk-VibmDXj-QYAtGsp31Eg7srZ1n0z_E/s400/SS-Standartenf_hrer_Karl_von_Krempler.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Karl von
Krempler</span></i></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyFC17l-3E9JmUl0TwSscfWt9EXYFJz_-b-_5rjLJ9MqTDCPIcZ4Kco66ku5sKmHQZxCrjpVVm648c8UOnWofNMLcM01M4irgQNfT4PgYsFiO1PIwVw0XoX7nMSPrKojGoHNuXKnz_JMhm/s1600/dfbvzdfbfbd.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyFC17l-3E9JmUl0TwSscfWt9EXYFJz_-b-_5rjLJ9MqTDCPIcZ4Kco66ku5sKmHQZxCrjpVVm648c8UOnWofNMLcM01M4irgQNfT4PgYsFiO1PIwVw0XoX7nMSPrKojGoHNuXKnz_JMhm/s400/dfbvzdfbfbd.jpg" width="308" /></a></i></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3zO90PJTrvDE-VpX4tn2E6qHtzrgFHgLYGxiRqo-gl656sUBU3u5L346e9oCS85la2-xNcm1SSv0_UyZxxR85OK1N8Lw4iupn2BjBCNdpSs0Fe1Sff6xom18PosplUiIIN1-rjaz35LLa/s1600/SkanderbegCuffTitle-03H.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3zO90PJTrvDE-VpX4tn2E6qHtzrgFHgLYGxiRqo-gl656sUBU3u5L346e9oCS85la2-xNcm1SSv0_UyZxxR85OK1N8Lw4iupn2BjBCNdpSs0Fe1Sff6xom18PosplUiIIN1-rjaz35LLa/s400/SkanderbegCuffTitle-03H.jpg" width="307" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The historical and political precedents for
the creation of a greater Sqiperia or Greater Albania was set during World War
II when the Kosovo and Metohija regions along with territory Southwest of lake
Skutari from Montenegro and the western region of Southern Serbia, or Juzna
Srbija (now part of Macedonija), were annexed to Albania by the Axis powers led
by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, under a plan devised by Benito Mussolini and
Adolf Hitler to dismember and to destroy the Serbian Nation and people, which
the Germans and Italians perceived as the main threat to the axis powers and to
the Third Reich in the Balkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">On April 7, 1939, Italian troops invaded
and occupied Albania forcing the Albanian ruler King Zog I Ahmed Bey Zogu, to
flee to Greece. Italy formally annexed into the Kingdom of Italy under the
Italian king Victor Immanuel and established a military government and viceroy.
The Italian began a program to colonize the country when thousands of settlers
immigrated to Albania. An Albanian Fascist Party was established with Albanian
Black skirts based on Italian models. The Albanian Army consisted of three
infantry brigades of 12 000 men.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">On October 28 1940, Italy invaded Greece
from Albania with 10 Italian divisions and the Albanian Army but were driven
back.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Germany sought to assist the
Italian-Albanian offensive by operation Alpine Violet, a plan to move a corps
of tree German mountain divisions to Albania by air and sea. Instead German
built up a heavy concentration of the German Twelfth Army on the northwest
Greek Border with Bulgaria, from where the German invasion was launched.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">On April 6, 1941, Nazi Germany and the axis
powers invaded Yugoslavia, Operation Punishment, and Greece forcing the
capitulation of Yugoslavia on the 17th, and Greece on the 23rd. Yugoslavia was
subsequently occupied and dismembered. The Axis powers established a greater
Albania or greater Shqiperia at the expense of Serbia and Montenegro. Territory
from Montenegro was annexed to Greater Albania. From Serbia, the Kosovo and
Metohija were ceded to greater Albania, along with the western part of Southern
Serbia (Juzna Srbija), now part of Macedonia, an area which was part of Stara
Srbija (Ancient Old Serbia). This Kosovo-metohija region and the surrounding
territory annexed to Greater Albania was called "New Albania".</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">To create an ethnically pure Shqiptar
Kosovo, which Albanian called "Kosova", the Shqiptari (Albanians)
launched a wide scale campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide. Ethnic Serbs
in the Kosovo-Metohija regions were massacred, and their homes were burned, and
survivors were brutally driven out and expelled in policy of ethnic cleansing
and genocide.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Balli Kombetar (BK or National Union)
was an Albanian nationalist group led by Midhat Fresheri and Ali Klissura whose
political objective was to in incorporate Kosovo-Metohija into a Greater
Albania and to ethnically cleanse the region of Orthodox Serbs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Abanian Committee of Kosovo organized
massive campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Orthodox Serbian
inhabitants of Kosovo- Metohuja. A contemporary report described the ethnic
cleansing and genocide of Serbs as follows:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Armed with material supplied by the
Italians, the Albanians hurled themselves against helpless settlers in their
homes and villages. According to the most reliable sources, the Albanian burned
many Serbian settlements, killing some of the people and driving out others who
escaped to the mountains. At present other Serbian settlement are being
attacked and the property of individuals and of communities is either being
confiscated or destroyed. It is not possible to ascertain at the present time
the exact number of victims of those atrocities, but it may be estimated that
at least between 30.000 and 40.000 perished.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Bedri Pejani, the Muslim leader of the
Albanian National committee, called for the extermination of Ortodox Serbian
Christians in Kosovo Metohija and for a union of a Greater Albania with Bosnia
and Herzegovina and the Rashka (Sandzak) region of Serbia, into a great Islamic
state. The grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin El Husseini was presented to
Pejani a plan which he approved as a being in the interest of Islam. The
Germans however rejected the plan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">On September 3, 1943, Italy capitulated by
signing an armistice with the Allies. The German were now forced to occupy
Albania with the collapse of the Italian forces. The Germans sent the 100th
Jaeger Division from Greece and the 297th Infantry Division from Serbia and the
German 1st Mountain Division to occupy Albania. These troops were organized
into the XXI Mountain Corps which was under the command of General Paul Bader.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Additional security forces for the interior
were needed, however, to free up Germans troops for defense of the coastline.
The decision was made to form an Albanian SS mountain division for this
purpose. In April in 1944, recruitment for the Albanian SS division began under
direction of the newly formed Albanian Nazi party, which has been formed
through the efforts of Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Acting upon instructions of
Reichsfuehrer SS Henrich Himmler, the SS main office ordered the formation of
an Albanian volunteer mountain division on April 17, 1944. SS Brigadefuehrern
and Generalmajor of the Waffen SS Josef Fitzhum, who headed the Higher SS and
Police Command in Albania, oversaw the forming and training of the division.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The SS high Command planned to create a
mountain division of 10.000 men. The Higher SS and Police Command in Albania,
in conduction with the Albanian National Committee, listed 11.398 possible
recruits for the Waffen SS mountain division. Most of these recruits were
"kossovars", shqiptar Ghegs from Kosovo Metohija in Serbia. The
Shqiptar Tosks were found mainly in southern Albania. Most of the Shqiptar
collaborators with the Nazi forces were the Nazi forces were the so-called
Kossovars, ethnic Shqiptars from the Kosmet of Serbia. The Nazi
German-sponsored Albanian gendarmes, special police and para-military units
were made up by Kossovars. The Kossovars were under the direct control of the
Albanian Interior Minister Xhafer Deva.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Skanderbeg Division was formed and
trained in Kosovo and was made up mostly of Muslim Shqiptar Kossovars. There
were only a small number of Albanians from Albania proper in the division. The
Skanderbeg Mountain Division of the Waffen SS was thus essentially a Kosovo or
Kosmet Division. The Division was stationed and operated in Kosovo and other
Serbian regions almost exclusively.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Of the 11.398 recruits listed for the
Division, 9.275 were ascertained to be suitable to draft in the Waffen SS. Of
those suitable to be drafted, 6.491 Albanian were chosen and inducted into the
Skanderbeg Division. To this Albanian core were added veteran German troops
primarily Reichdeutsche from Austria and Volkdeutcshe officers, NCOs, and
enlisted men, transferred from the 7th SS Mountain Division "Prinz
Eugen" which was stationed in Bosnia-Hercegovina. The Kosovo Albanian 21st
Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS "Skanderbeg" consisted in total of
8.500 - 9.000 men of all ranks. The 6.491 Shqiptar recruits were assembled at
depots in Kosovo where the formation and the training of the division began.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The official designation for the division
was 21 Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS "Skanderbeg" (Albanische Nr 1).
The SS Main Office designed a distinctive arm patch for the division,
consisting of a black double-headed eagle on a red background, the national
symbol of Albania. The word "Skanderbeg", embroidered in white,
appeared above the eagle and was warn on the left sleeve. The right collar
patch consisted of a helmet with a goat's head on top, the helmet supposedly
worn by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, after whom the division was named. The
Shqiptars recruits in the division wore a white skullcap, the national attire
of the Shqiptar Ghegs. The SS main office also issued gray skullcaps with the
Totenkopf (death's head) insignia sewn on the front below the Hoheitszeichen
(the national symbol of Nazi Germany, consisting of a white eagle over a Nazi
swastika).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Division was named after George Kastrioti,
or Gjergj Kastriota, also as Kastriotis (1405-1468), national hero of Albania,
who fought for the Ottoman Turks. As a child, Kastrioti was given as a hostage
to Sultan Murat II to be brought as a Muslim at Adrianople (Edrine). Kastrioti
became an officer in the Ottoman Turkish army and led the Turkish forces in
many victories over Christian troops. Murat II was impressed with his valor and
bravery in his battle for Islam and gave him the name Iskander Bey in Turkish,
from "Iskander", Aleksander the Great, or prince Aleksander, and
"bey", master. The name was shortened to Skanderbeg, beg being the
local variant of bey. Later Kastrioti renounced Islam and converted to Christianity
and attacked his former Ottoman Turkish masters. He captured the Albanian
capital Kroja from the Turkish governor and proclaimed a revolt against the
Turks in 1442. Sultan Mohammed II sent Turkish armies to defeat the renegade
Kastrioti, but he was able to defeat Turkish forces, which besieged Kroja but
could not capture it. Kastrioti died in 1468. Kroja surrendered in 1479 and the
Turks occupied Albania.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Albanians in the Skanderbeg Division
were mostly Muslims, of the Bektashi and Sunni sects of Islam. The division
contained several hundred Albanian Catholics, followers of Jon Marko Joni.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The first commander of the Skanderbeg
division was SS Brigadefuehrer Generalmajor of the Waffen SS Josef Fitshum, who
commanded the division from April to June 1944. After the Juli 20,
assassination plot against Hitler, Fitzhum was appointed supreme commander in
Albania. In June, SS Stardentenfuehrer August Schmidhuber was appointed
division commander, a post would hold until August 1944. On June 21, 1944, Schmidhuber
was promoted to SS Oberfuehrer and later in the war, he would be promoted to SS
Brigadefuhrer. SS Oberstrumbannfuhrer Alfred Graf commanded the reorganized
remnants of the Skanderbeg Division from August 1944, to may, 1945.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Shultzstaffel or SS was created in the
period 1923-1925 and was initially known as the Stosstrupp (Shock troop)
"Adolf Hitler". On January 16, 1929, Hitler appointed Heinrich
Himmler leader of SS, Reichsfuehrer SS. The SS was envisioned as an elite troop
of the Party, a praetorian bodyguard to Hitler and the Nazi leadership. The SS
was a formation "composed of the best physically, the most dependable, and
the most faithful men in the Nazi movement. In 1940, combat units of the SS
were formed, collectively termed the Waffen SS. Approximately 30-40 Waffen SS
divisions were formed during the war, divided into three groupings, Waffen
divisions made by Germans, those made up of ethnic Germans outside the Reich,
and those made up of non-Germans. "Divisions der SS", Divisions of the
SS.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">On September 27,1939, Reichsfuehrer SS
Heinrich Himmler as Chief of German Police consolidated the Gestapo, Kripo, and
SD under an SS Main Office of Reich Security, or the RSHA. The RSHA was the
actual body entrusted with the overall administration of the final solution at
the Jewish Problem, what became known as the Holocaust. The SS Economic and
administrative Main Office or WVHA, run the concentration camp system. Nazi
concentration camp personnel and guards, although not under the command of the Army
or the Kommandoamt der Waffen SS, nevertheless, wore Waffen SS uniforms and
received Waffen SS pay books. Reichfuehrer SS Heinrich Himmler oversaw a
program that resulted in the extermination of millions of men, women and
children. Himmler was the Architect of genocide and of the Holocaust and the
Waffen SS was his "private army", the black angels".</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In Jun,1944, The Skanderbeg Waffen SS
Mountain Division engaged in large-scale field manoeuvres in the area between
the towns of Berane and Adrijevica in Monte Negro (Crna Gora). Garrisons of
Skanderbeg division were established in Kosovo towns of Pec, Jakova, Prizren,
and Pristina. Further training of the division continued in August as new
recruits were inducted in the division. An artillery battalion of the division,
consisting of two batteries, was located in Gnjilane.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The first major action of the division
occurred in August, 144 in Kosovo. In September, 1944, the Skanderbeg division
occupied the Southern Serbia (Juzna Srbija) region now part of the communist
created republic of Macedonia, and helped to garrison the region. The
Skanderbeg division was ordered into the areas surrounding the towns Skoplje
(or Skopje), Kumanovo Presevo and Bujanovac. Sanderbeg operated in Stara
Serbija (old and Ancient Serbia) region, in the towns of Pec,
Gnjilane,Djakovica, Tetovo Gostivar, and Kosovska Mitrovica, then part of
Kosovo Metohija and Southern Serbia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In November, 1944, when the German armies
in the Balkan were retreating from Yugoslavia and the Balkans, the Skanderbeg
division remnants were reorganized into Regimentegruppe 21 SS Gebirgs
"Skanderbeg" and was transferred to Skoplje, according to one account
of the movements of the Battle group. This SS Kampfgruppe
"Skanderbeg", along with the Prinz Eugen Division, defended the
Vardar valley. The battle group "Skanderbeg" and Prinz Eugen held the
Vardar area because it was the sole corridor of escape for the retreating
German armies in Alexander Loehr's Army Group E, which was retreating from
Greece and Aegean Islands.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Skanderbeg Battle Group along with the
Prinz Eugen Division retreated to the to the Brcko region of Bosnia-Herzegovina
by mid-January 1945. At this time the remaining Skanderbeg personnel were
incorporated into the 14th SS Volunteer Mountain Infantry Regiment of the 7th
SS division Prinz Eugen. The remnants of the Skanderbeg Division fought in this
formation until the end of the war, retreating to Austria in May, 1945.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Skanderbeg division engaged in a policy
of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Serbian Orthodox Christian
populations of the regions under occupation by the division in Kosovo Metohija,
Montenegro, and southern Serbia. Balkan Historian Robert Lee Wolff, in the
"Balkans in Our time", described the genocide committed against
Kosovo Serbs by the Shqiptar 21st Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS Skenderbeg as
follows:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In the regions annexed by the Albanians,
their so-called Skanderbeg division, made up of members of the Albanian
minority in Yugoslavia, massacred Serbs with impunity.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Historian L.H. Stavrianos, in "The
Balkan Since 1453", described the genocide committed against Orthodox
Serbs by the Shqiptar Skanderbeg Division in these terms: Yugoslav Albanians,
organized in their fascist Skanderbeg Division, conducted an indiscriminate
massacre of Serbians.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Skanderbeg Division played a role in
the Holocaust, the genocide if European Jewry, by rounding up scores of Kosovo
Jews in a group roughly 500 persons deemed enemies of the Third Reich when the
division occupied Prizren in Kosovo Metohija. The division sought to create
ethnically pure Kosovo, ethnically cleansed of Orthodox Serbs, Jews and Gypsies
the untermenschen (subhuman), who were targeted for extermination.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal declared
the Shutzstaffel or SS criminal organization and every individual member of SS
was found to be a war criminal guilty of "planning and carrying out crimes
against humanity". The Shqiptar Kosovars in the 21st Waffen Gebirgs
Division "Skanderbeg" committed war crimes and genocide against the
Orthodox Serbian population of Kosovo. The Shqiptar planned and carried out
crimes against humanity in Kosovo. Orthodox Serbians of Kosovo were the victims
of ethnic cleansing and genocide. This genocide would contribute in the Shqiptar
goal and policy to create an ethnically pure, Shqiptar Kosovo, in an attempt to
create a greater Shqiperia or greater Albania. Following World war II, the
Yugoslav Communist dictatorship allowed the policy of ethnic cleansing and
genocide against the Orthodox Serbs to continue, and indeed, gave greater
impetus and legitimacy to the policy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">---</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">During World War II, the Axis powers
dismembered and occupied Yugoslavia and created a greater Albania by annexing
the Serbian region of Kosovo-Metohija by Nazi Germany, Germany formed a
Shqiptar "Kosovar" Waffen SS Division, the 21st Waffen Gebirgs
Division der SS "Skanderbeg" which engaged in a policy of ethnic
cleansing and genocide against the Orthodox Serbian population of Kosovo. The
result was that the Shqiptars, with the help of Germany, were able to virtually
exterminate the Serbian and Jews populations of Kosovo, thereby creating an
ethnically pure, Nazi German-sponsored Greater Albania or Greater Shqiperia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br /><br />21st Waffen SS Mountain Division "Skanderberg" (1st Albanian): Formed on 5/1/44 in northern Albania from Islamic Albanians. <br /><br />The division had: <br /><br />1/,2/,3/50th SS Mountain Jäger Regiment (1st Albanian) <br /><br />1/,2/,3/51st SS Mountain Jäger Regiment (2nd Albanian) <br /><br />21st SS Reconnaissance Battalion (4 cos) <br /><br />21st SS Freiwilligen Panzerjäger Battalion (3 cos) <br /><br />1/,2/,3/,4/21st SS Mountain Artillery Regiment (from 1st Albanian Artillery Regiment) <br /><br />21st SS Freiwilligen Pioneer Battalion (3 cos) <br /><br />21st SS Feldersatz Battalion 21st SS Freiwilligen Signals Battalion (3 cos) <br /><br />21st SS Mountain Supply Troop The division was disbanded at the end of 1944. <div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=1927" target="_blank"><span class="f01"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">LINK</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=1927"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-49144422962908211682015-09-13T08:53:00.001-07:002015-09-13T08:53:21.097-07:00Occupation and resistance in Yugoslavia<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLnlFW8V6qA4bViC1Gr1zSCI7i4ANy6JmG4ztDOnBXz-eHKpwAOfOvwqG0Z3TfYlHYGeohD3XRpammelj6HXfbZ-FNaSAvsu_ac8Zou-4cZZB-Q_EDQ6SYvDHoCWvqyhLc7a18j2f3HhAq/s1600/11213964400538344555.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLnlFW8V6qA4bViC1Gr1zSCI7i4ANy6JmG4ztDOnBXz-eHKpwAOfOvwqG0Z3TfYlHYGeohD3XRpammelj6HXfbZ-FNaSAvsu_ac8Zou-4cZZB-Q_EDQ6SYvDHoCWvqyhLc7a18j2f3HhAq/s400/11213964400538344555.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Ragusa, Yugoslavia, The Italian army entering the city, 18/04/1941.</b></i></div>
<br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
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In the Balkans (Yugoslavia and Greece) German forces were
supplemented by sizable Italian forces and by equally strong Croatian and
Bosnian collaborationist contingents (about eight to ten divisions' worth).
This increased the number of occupying troops to about the same as those in
France. Despite these additional forces, the Balkans were the most restless
area in the Nazi empire, and about 24,000 German troops died there during the
war, plus many more Italians and pro-Axis locals (who also kept large parts of
the Balkans relatively pro-German and quiet). In contrast, only about 12,000
Germans were killed during the North African campaign.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Germans invaded Yugoslavia in early 1941, but Italians
(who had attacked Albania in 1939) comprised most of the occupation troops
until 1943, abetted by locally recruited Croat and Bosnian collaborators. A
Resistance formed immediately, but because of the multicultural composition of
Yugoslavia, and the enmity between Communists and monarchists, there was more
fighting between partisans than with the occupying Italians. </div>
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The Invasion of Yugoslavia (code-name Directive 25 or Operation 25) was the Axis powers' attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II. The invasion ended with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941, the annexation and occupation of the region by the Axis powers and the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, or NDH).</div>
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<br />The Italian Second Army crossed the border soon after the Germans. They faced the Yugoslavian Seventh Army. The Italians encountered limited resistance and occupied parts of Slovenia, Croatia, and the coast of Dalmatia. In addition to the Second Army, Italy had four divisions of the Ninth Army on the Yugoslavian border with Albania. These formations were so situated against a Yugoslav offensive on that front. Around 300 Ustaše volunteers under the command of Ante Pavelic accompanied the Italian Second Army during the invasion; about the same number of Ustaše were attached to the German Army and other Axis allies.</div>
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<br />The Independent State of Croatia was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. The state was technically a monarchy and Italian protectorate from the signing of the Rome agreements on 19 May 1941 until the Italian capitulation on 8 September 1943; but the king-designate, the Prince Aimone of Savoy-Aosta, refused to assume the kingship in opposition to the Italian annexation of the Croat-populated Yugoslav region of Dalmatia.</div>
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After Italy left
the war in 1943, German troops took over the occupation. The partisans grabbed
many of the Italians' weapons, and many anti-Fascist Italians even joined the
partisans: One whole division more or less went over to them intact. While the
Italians had usually been relatively easygoing during their occupation, the
Germans were a lot tougher. Many of the non-Communist partisans collaborated
with the Italians, and then with the Germans, to gain advantage over the
Communist groups. Moreover, the Communist partisans were largely Serbs, while
the monarchists were largely Croats. The other ethnic groups in Yugoslavia also
tended to take sides against each other rather than against the occupying army.
The Germans took advantage of this; to the extent that they raised two SS
divisions comprised of Muslim Yugoslavs and then turned them loose on Christian
civilians and partisans. Still, the partisans were a tough bunch and the
Germans managed to assist the guerrillas by butchering suspected partisan
sympathizers. This turned more of the population, and partisans, against the
Germans. By this time, the Allies realized that, although they had been sending
most of their aid to the non-Communist partisans, it was the Communist
partisans led by Josip Broz (Tito) who were most energetically fighting the
Germans. So by late 1943, the Allies got behind Tito and his Communist
partisans. Throughout 1944, the partisans became stronger and stronger, and
eventually, the Yugoslavs earned the distinction of being the only partisan
army to liberate its own country without the aid of Allied troops. The Yugoslav
partisans were even able to keep the Red Army out of the country. Meanwhile, by
the end of the war, the non-Communist groups in the country were disarmed (and
many killed) and a Communist government set up.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-83968556382245054932015-09-13T08:49:00.001-07:002015-09-13T08:49:32.100-07:00PARTISANS WITH ARMOR <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5FSzWUQdMRD3KyrnHrF1_lADWM0hefMJeTG56wbNfj7FLH5rMVeFdX-nP5M2ezbO3AZZq6Ml6kj3TWSgkWsaTvHXCxl0ydC_CJ6856zbk6LVIXQ6DYwqQMX6ckqiEhC7srz2BkVE-SBRx/s1600/bdac764b68f04692e2eccc5cca8a9ff0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="340" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5FSzWUQdMRD3KyrnHrF1_lADWM0hefMJeTG56wbNfj7FLH5rMVeFdX-nP5M2ezbO3AZZq6Ml6kj3TWSgkWsaTvHXCxl0ydC_CJ6856zbk6LVIXQ6DYwqQMX6ckqiEhC7srz2BkVE-SBRx/s400/bdac764b68f04692e2eccc5cca8a9ff0.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>Allied Aid To Yugoslav Partisans British armored cars, American tanks, anti-tank guns, and other equipment suitable for mountainous warfare are being supplied to Marshal Tito's Yugoslav partisans for use against German forces trapped in Yugoslavia. Dec. 1944 Vehicle in the pic appears to be a re-badged Brit AEC Armoured Car. </b></i><br />
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The Yugoslav partisans, among their other distinctions,
maintained some armored forces throughout their four-year battle for
liberation. Guerrillas rarely operated tanks. For one thing, they had a hard time
obtaining them. Moreover, tanks require a lot of maintenance, supply, and other
support. Guerrillas keep moving and customarily travel light. But the Yugoslavs
had two things going for them. First, for the initial two years of their war,
the major occupation force consisted of Italians. Not very eager to battle
partisans, the Italians often followed a "live and let live" policy.
This allowed the partisans sufficient leeway to maintain those tanks they
captured from the Italians. </div>
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Neither the Italians, nor later the Germans, sent much armor
to Yugoslavia and most of what was used were light tanks captured earlier from
the French. Italians also used their own light tanks, knowing these were not of
much use against heavier British and Russian models in other areas where
Italian units were in combat. By 1944, the partisans had over fifty captured
tanks in running condition, organized into several "battalions."
Later that year, the British supplied the partisans with a battalion of
fifty-six light tanks and twenty-four armored cars. The crews for these
vehicles were trained in Italy and landed (with their vehicles) in Yugoslavia
in November 1944. The battalion then fought its way inland. The Russians
equipped a partisan tank brigade (sixty-five T-34s) which then went to
Yugoslavia and fought alongside other partisan units. Thus when the Germans
finally evacuated Yugoslavia, they had to do so in great haste lest they be
trapped by guerrilla armored units.</div>
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Lot of captured tanks made it's way to Yugoslavia - R-35, H-35/39, Somua,
Char-B1bis, etc... Also older German tanks were used - Pz-35/38, Pz-I/II/III,
some of them rare models - Pz-If etc...<br />
<br />
Yugoslavia in 1941 had 65 R-35, and M.28 (Reno-Kegresse - improved FT-17),
FT-17. Only really capable vehicle was M.32 (Skoda S.I.D) armed with 37mm M.36
Gun (same gun as a German 37mm Pak) and ZB-30 coax, but there were only 8 of
those. Later partisans captured some of German and Italian tanks (CV-33, L6, M13/39)
and used it till Brits send M3 Stuarts and Russians send T-34/85. Some of
Stuarts were modified with captured 75mm Pak guns (sort of Marder relative),
and some got quad 20mm AA-guns. Pak version was used till 1951.<br />
<br />
The German SOMUA used in anti-partisan operations in Yugoslavia were
captured by partisan units and put into use, and at least one was used by the
Yugoslav 1st Tank Brigade alongside its M3A3 Stuarts.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-29442638921989766862015-09-13T08:46:00.002-07:002015-09-13T08:46:53.670-07:00Yugoslavia World War II<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The thirty divisions of the Royal Yugoslav Army were not
equipped or prepared to meet the fifty-two invading German, Italian, and
Hungarian divisions and the Bulgarian forces that invaded Macedonia. Lacking
modern equipment and adequate mobility and firepower, the Yugoslav Army faced a
surprise attack on several fronts by superior and heavily armored and
mechanized forces. Yugoslav forces retreated rapidly to the center of the
country, attempting to use the mountainous coastal areas as a base and to
maintain lines of supply to Greece and the Allies. However, German forces
captured the supreme command at Sarajevo on April 17, 1941, and Yugoslavia
formally surrendered. Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Albania annexed or
occupied parts of the country.</div>
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<br /></div>
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A small group of officers led by Colonel Draza Mihajlovi
refused to surrender and continued to resist the occupation from a base in
western Serbia. They called themselves the Cetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav
Army of the Fatherland. The Cetnici (sg. Cetnik--see Glossary) also represented
the royal government in exile. They received a British military liaison officer
and considerable amounts of British supplies and equipment. However, they
avoided attacking the occupiers because they feared reprisals against the
noncombatant population. The Cetnici believed their military actions could not
influence the course of the war, and they waited instead for the Allies to defeat
the Axis powers. They were later discredited in Yugoslavia as collaborators
because of their unwillingness to resist.</div>
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The Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) under Tito also
refused to accept defeat. It remained inactive, however, until Germany attacked
the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Through the Comintern (Communist Internal
trans), the CPY received orders from the Soviet Union to resist the German
occupation. Initially the military committees of the CPY collected arms and
organized available manpower. Then they conducted small armed attacks and acts
of sabotage against occupying Axis forces. They waged their military campaign
without regard to the fate of civilians living under the occupation--often the
occupiers executed large numbers of civilians in retaliation for attacks and
sabotage. The difference in strategies and political views quickly brought the
etnici and CPY forces into a state of civil war. The former unsuccessfully
attempted to attack Tito's headquarters in November 1941.</div>
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The CPY military wing formally became the People's
Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia (commonly known as the
Partisans) on December 22, 1941. With approximately 80,000 fighters, the
Partisans fought occupying forces, collaborators such as the Ustase (see
Glossary) in Croatia, and their political opponents, the Cetnici. By the end of
1942, the Partisans had grown to 150,000 troops organized into two corps, three
divisions, thirty-one brigades, and thirty-eight detachments. Axis occupation
forces launched several major offensives to destroy the Partisans, but they
failed in each case. Although the Partisans liberated some areas of the
country, they generally avoided major engagements with superior forces.</div>
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Yugoslavia became an unanticipated theater of war for the
Axis. Large German forces were forced to remain there to protect lines of
supply to Greece and North Africa during the critical year of 1942. Nearly
600,000 Axis troops, thirty-eight divisions in all, were needed to control the
country and thus were unavailable as reinforcements for the pivotal battles of
El Alamein and Stalingrad. The occupation of Yugoslavia drained significant
Axis manpower and resources from other theaters over a long period of time.
Partisan pressure was a factor in Italy's withdrawal from the war in September
1943. When Italy's twenty divisions left Yugoslav territory, Germany had to
commit even greater numbers of soldiers to maintain its position there. At
maximum strength the German occupying army included twenty-six divisions.</div>
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By late 1943, the Partisans began to resemble a regular
army. With captured or abandoned Italian arms, they armed 300,000 combatants in
eight corps and twenty-six divisions. At the end of 1943, virtually all Allied
military assistance was transferred from the Cetnici to the Partisans, whose
operations had the potential of hastening the defeat of Germany. From then
until the end of the war, the Partisans received over 100 tanks, 300 field
guns, 2,000 mortars, 13,000 machine guns, and 130,000 rifles from Great Britain
and the United States. The Soviet Union provided even larger numbers of guns,
mortars, and machine guns.</div>
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As the Germans retreated from Greece through Yugoslavia and
the Soviet Red Army advanced into Romania in 1944, the Partisans cleared most
of the German troops from the country while simultaneously battling their
domestic Ustase and Cetnik enemies. Tito flew to Moscow to meet Stalin and to
coordinate Partisan and Red Army operations on Yugoslav territory. The Red Army
wheeled north after entering the country and, together with the Partisans,
liberated Belgrade on October 20, 1944. The Red Army pursued the retreating
German forces from northeast Yugoslavia into Hungary, leaving the Partisans in
control in Yugoslavia. The 800,000 troops of the People's Liberation Army
officially became the Yugoslav People's Army (YPA) on March 1, 1945.</div>
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Yugoslavia suffered 1.7 million dead during the war, out of
a total population of 15 million. Of these, over 300,000 were killed in action.
Another 400,000 were wounded. Yugoslav sources claimed that the Partisans
inflicted over 450,000 enemy casualties. The amount of Ustase and Cetnik
casualties in that total is unknown.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-29246546702518669472015-09-13T08:44:00.002-07:002015-09-13T08:44:43.005-07:00YUGOSLAVIA: THE COST<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7GRVrSTObcnugCg-AXdBn0np9kQFLE-YSeDLMda02B42zoMZxdxVywUm0rXFr0iGqsGOYlIiHoioNLd9mllZRTX1H3GrvhKcC5044UpLvaENHbptlyJMLF9v3gTUeUi7CHtNguaTczMmu/s1600/Chetniks_pose_with_German_soldiers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7GRVrSTObcnugCg-AXdBn0np9kQFLE-YSeDLMda02B42zoMZxdxVywUm0rXFr0iGqsGOYlIiHoioNLd9mllZRTX1H3GrvhKcC5044UpLvaENHbptlyJMLF9v3gTUeUi7CHtNguaTczMmu/s400/Chetniks_pose_with_German_soldiers.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Chetniks pose with German soldiers</b></i></div>
<br />
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Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
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The Partizans had the organizational strengths the Chetniks
lacked. The need for secrecy and strict obedience to orders under conditions of
pre-war illegality led to the quasi-militarization of the Communist Party,
which proved adept at mobile guerrilla warfare. Tito’s forces crossed and
re-crossed Bosnia several times during the war, whereas the Chetniks were able
to break out of their local strongholds only on the coat tails of Axis
offensives. Party discipline, expressed in a puritanical code of personal
conduct, was constantly reinvigorated by purges, keeping local commissars
responsive to Central Committee orders even when the Partizan movement expanded
in numbers far beyond its core of Communist cadres. On the run from the Axis,
the Party set up in every liberated enclave the rudiments of civil
administration, embodied in ‘Regulations’ establishing Peoples’ Committees, and
set the presses to work publicizing the Partizan cause. In addition to the
Party newsheets, such as Borba and Proleter, the Communists took over a pre-war
title, Woman Today, and made it the official organ of the Women’s Anti-fascist
Front, founded in December 1942. The mobilization of women turned out to be a
remarkable success. Between 15 and 20 per cent of Partizan fighters were women
– the Chetniks called them ‘whores’, in the true voice of patriarchal Serbia. </div>
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<br /></div>
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German reprisals drove thousands of young men and women into
the arms of the Partizans. A Wehrmacht directive ordered that 100 hostages
should be shot for every German soldier killed, 50 for every one wounded. The
readiness of the German commanders to obey (they included many senior officers
formerly in Habsburg service), led to one of the most notorious war crimes to
capture the popular imagination of the Serbs after the war. Failing to find
enough grown men in Kragujevac, the death squads rounded up the older boys of
the town gymnasium (there was only one) and shot them (22 October 1941),
together with their elderly schoolmaster. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Partizans and Chetniks reacted to total war in quite
different ways. The Partizans left the uncommitted civilian population to take
their chances, as a way of discouraging collaboration, and attacked the
occupying forces wherever they could. Chetnikoperations against the Axis
started later, were less frequent, and inflicted fewer casualties. The Italians
used the Chetniks as a buffer in their own zone of occupation, allowing them to
protect Serbs against Ustasha terror attacks and to maintain some kind of civil
order. This policy, compounded by the Party’s early blunder of ‘left
deviationism’ (that is, mass terror), explains why the Partizans made no
headway at all in Montenegro until the spring of 1943. In the areas of the
Independent State of Croatia controlled by Italy, Chetniks (about 20 000 of
them) actually fought as auxiliary forces, in an anti-Communist militia armed
by the Italians and owing notional allegiance to the NDH. Serbia remained a
Chetnikstronghold for all but the last few months of the fighting. The Germans
oscillated between attackand truce in their dealings with the Chetniks,
depending on the fluctuating military situation. They allowed the Chetniks far
less rope than the Italians, but Mihailoviç’s men were obviously useful for
keeping the Partizans busy and out of the German zone.</div>
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After perfunctory initial attempts to organize combined operations
against the occupation forces, Partizans and Chetniks settled, from the
beginning of 1942, into a struggle to eliminate each other, with the Slav
Muslims caught in the middle. The Chetniks recruited exclusively among Serbs
and Montenegrins. Serbs from Bosnia and Croatia, young men fleeing from Ustasha
killings, also formed the backbone of the early Partizan formations, but the
movement did attract support from other nationalities in the later stages of
the fighting. </div>
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The Independent State of Croatia became the main
slaughterhouse of war. Deaths of Yugoslavians from all causes attributable to
war numbered 1.027 million, 80 000 of whom died abroad. Of the 947 000 deaths
which occurred on Yugoslav soil, 587 000 (62 per cent) were deaths suffered on the
territory of the NDH. Most of the remaining victims are accounted for by the
273 000 deaths in Serbia (29 per cent), 250 000 of them in the Vojvodina and
Inner Serbia. Montenegro (37 000), Slovenia (33 000) and Macedonia (17 000)
complete the territorial distribution of deaths within the borders of
Yugoslavia. </div>
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Turning to the ethnic distribution of the total number of
1.027 million war dead, Serbs, Croats and Bosnia’s Muslims together accounted
for 81 per cent of Yugoslavia’s war losses (825 000 dead). Serbs bore the brunt
of the killing, with 530 000 deaths (52 per cent of the total number of war
victims), followed by 192 000 Croats (19 per cent) and 103 000 Bosnian Muslims
(10 per cent). Jews and Gypsies suffered the most grievous proportional losses.
Four out of every five of Yugoslavia’s Jews were killed (57 000 of them), and a
third of the Gypsy population (18 000 deaths). The remaining losses are
accounted for by the 42 000 Slovenes, 28 000 ethnic Germans, 20 000
Montenegrins, and 18 000 ethnic Albanians who lost their lives.</div>
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About 300 000 Serbs perished in Bosnia-Hercegovina and
Croatia – one in six of the Serb population, and 56 per cent of the total
number of Serbs killed in the war. Paveliç’s Ustasha followers treated the
Serbs as the Nazis treated the Jews, as vermin to be exterminated. This was not
a task imposed by the occupying forces, but sprang out of the Ustashas’ own
ideology, which incorporated a conception of Croats as a pure Aryan race. The
Serbs were classed as racial enemies, and made to wear armbands carrying the
letter ‘P’ for Pravoslavac, ‘Orthodox’. The Ustasha commanders carried out
their grisly work in the villages and small townships where their control was
unrestricted by Axis authority. Their trademark was to descend at night on
dazed and defenceless Serbs, who were massacred in their homes, in pits, in
forest clearings and in burning churches. Orthodox priests were killed in their
hundreds. No attempt was made to keep the killings secret: on the contrary,
knowledge of them was intended to instil fear and compliance in the Serb
population. Only lack of means prevented the Ustashas from carrying out their
genocidal mission by Nazi methods. Although they set up death camps like the
infamous Jasenovac, there was no Eichmannesque bureaucracy, no detailed railway
timetables or inventories of rolling stock, no neat blueprints of gas chambers.
The NDH was run as an economic satellite by the Germans, who were unwilling to
divert precious war resources to killing Serbs, and were for this reason
opposed to state terror being applied against the Serb population. Powerless to
murder all the Serbs, Paveliç decreed that the remainder should be forcibly
converted or driven into Nediç’s Serbia, where they found asylum of a sort
until the Germans sealed the borders in the autumn of 1941.</div>
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The National Liberation Struggle also claimed the lives of
192 000 Croats, 172 000 of them in the NDH. It has been estimated that 12 000
Ustasha core members were active when the state was proclaimed in April 1941,
and that the Ustasha movement eventually comprised 40 000–50 000 men enrolled
in the militias and gendarmerie. Even if we make the simplifying assumption
that all of them were killed, 120 000 Croat deaths remain to be explained.
There were 170 000 Croatian troops under German command, and they must account
for the bulk of deaths during the bitter fighting on the Srem front and in
Communist reprisals. But Croats fought on both sides, and by the end of the war
made up a third of the Peoples’ Liberation Army. Croats joined the ranks of the
Partizans, not just for opportunistic reasons when the Communists seemed to be
gaining the upper hand, but because the ideal of Croatian statehood had been
irretrievably compromised, both morally and politically, by the criminal
character of Ustasha rule. The Communists’ promise of a federal state seemed to
many Croats the best offer available – the Allies were not going to present
them with an independent successor state to the NDH when the war ended. </div>
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Those who died included ‘left’ members of the Croatian
Peasant Party; others were rounded up because they had criticized the Ustashas
before the war, or simply because they were in the way at a random moment. To
his credit, Macek refused to accept office in the Ustasha government and was
sent to a concentration camp before being released into house arrest, while a
third of the CPP leaders nominated to serve in the Zagreb Sabor in 1942
declined the honour. But Macek nullified the effect of his personal stand by
publicly advising Croats not to resist the Ustasha government. The attitude of
the Catholic clergy was equally ambivalent. With a few honourable exceptions,
they mostly took their lead from Cardinal Stepinac, whose ‘blood and soil’
patriotism prompted him to welcome the proclamation of the Independent State of
Croatia in glowing terms. Stepinac is credited with a deepening sense of
private unease and with behind-the-scenes interventions that saved many lives,
but his public utterances gave no sign of this repentance.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Slav Muslims suffered war losses totalling 100 000;
three-quarters of them lost their lives in Bosnia-Hercegovina, a further 15 000
in Serbia, 4000 each in Montenegro and Macedonia, and 2000 in Croatia. Some
historians have spoken of Chetnik genocide against the Muslims, and certainly
not just the numbers alone, but the bestiality of the killings (flaying,
boiling alive) convey an intensity of ethnic hatred which suggests a will to
exterminate the entire Slav Muslim people. Judgement about Mihailoviç’s personal
responsibility for war crimes is complicated by the possibility of forgery in
the case of a key document, but the scale of the killings is not a matter of
dispute. During the course of a single night, 13 February 1943, 8000 women,
children and old men were butchered by the Lim-Sandzak Chetnik forces, a deed
recorded laconically in the commanders’ own reports. Massacres occurred along
the entire line of the borders of Bosnia-Hercegovina with Serbia, Montenegro
and the Sandzak, and the roll call of place-names is an all too familiar one:
Srebrenica, Visegrad, Gorazde, Rogatica.</div>
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The Ustasha onslaught on the Serbs initiated the cycle of
inter-ethnic butchery, but once it took hold causes and effects intermingled.
The presence of some Muslims in Ustasha units could be advanced as a pretext
for retaliatory killings which drove even more of them into the arms of
Paveliç, but the Muslims generally by no means favoured the Ustasha regime. The
official revival of Starceviç’s old claim that the Muslim Slavs represented the
purest stream of Croatian nationhood was a sinister compliment, and attempts to
absorb the leadership of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization into the government
of the NDH were rebuffed. In their struggle for survival, the Muslims did not
conform to any dominant pattern of collaboration or resistance. Early in the
war, some members of the Muslim clergy protested vigorously against the
ill-treatment of Serbs and Jews, as well as defending their own community from
the lawlessness and brutality of the regime. By 1943, others were encouraging
their young men to enlist in the Muslim SS division then being formed.
Individual Muslim leaders were prepared at times to cooperate with the Chetniks
against the Ustashas; sometimes Muslim guerrillas were numerically strong
enough to fight without allies, yet others chose to join the Partizans.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-92171353678548727442015-08-10T05:06:00.002-07:002015-08-10T05:06:52.305-07:00Bombing Bulgaria I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcSHPF9pdXOumB1jfSMnZ9plg0aHoRkmiVNDkf3HUlLYNjYPaMEodQ-rhVQl7un1wnHlTLE-bZDGbNIlqlYxuC_PwPSoVrbHOuwh6YSRIKMQ2uabhpNtucj9WLw4uX8gO_pM6JFIJLjCaK/s1600/USAAF-376th-Bombardment-Group-attacking-Sofia-Bulgaria-possibly-17-April-1944-United-States-Army-Air-Forces-photograph-via-US-National-Archives-crop-604x272.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcSHPF9pdXOumB1jfSMnZ9plg0aHoRkmiVNDkf3HUlLYNjYPaMEodQ-rhVQl7un1wnHlTLE-bZDGbNIlqlYxuC_PwPSoVrbHOuwh6YSRIKMQ2uabhpNtucj9WLw4uX8gO_pM6JFIJLjCaK/s400/USAAF-376th-Bombardment-Group-attacking-Sofia-Bulgaria-possibly-17-April-1944-United-States-Army-Air-Forces-photograph-via-US-National-Archives-crop-604x272.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Bombing of Sofia in World War II, 1944.</i></b></div>
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The modern aerial bomb, with its distinctive elongated
shape, stabilizing fins, and nose-fitted detonator, is a Bulgarian invention.
In the Balkan War of 1912, waged by Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro
(the Balkan League) against Turkey, a Bulgarian army captain, Simeon Petrov,
adapted and enlarged a number of grenades for use from an airplane. They were
dropped on a Turkish railway station on October 16, 1912, from an Albatros F.2
biplane piloted by Radul Milkov. Petrov afterward modified the design by adding
a stabilizing tail and a fuse designed to detonate on impact, and the six-kilogram
bomb became the standard Bulgarian issue until 1918. The plans of the so-called
Chataldzha bomb were later passed on to Germany, Bulgaria’s ally during the
First World War. The design, or something like it, soon became standard issue
in all the world’s first air forces.</div>
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Petrov’s invention came back to haunt Bulgaria during the
Second World War. On November 14, 1943, a force of ninety-one American B-25
Mitchell bombers escorted by forty-nine P-38 Lightning fighters attacked the
marshaling yards in the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. The bombing was spread over a
wide area, including three villages. The raid destroyed some of the rail
system, the Vrajedna airfield, and a further 187 buildings, resulting in around
150 casualties. A second attack ten days later by B-24 Liberator bombers was
less successful. There was poor weather across southern Bulgaria, and only
seventeen of the force reached what they hoped was Sofia and bombed through
cloud, hitting another seven villages around the capital. The attacks were enough
to spread panic through the city. In the absence of effective air defenses or
civil defense measures, thousands fled to the surrounding area. The Royal
Bulgarian Air Force, though equipped with sixteen Messerschmitt Me109G fighters
supplied by Bulgaria’s ally Germany, could do little against raids that, though
not entirely unexpected, came as a complete surprise when they happened.</div>
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The raid in November 1943 was not the first attack on a
Bulgarian target during the war, though it was the heaviest and most
destructive so far. Bulgaria became a target only because of the decision taken
in March 1941 by the Bulgarian government, after much hesitation, to tie the
country to Germany by signing the Tripartite Pact, which had been made among
the principal Axis powers, Germany, Italy, and Japan, the previous September.
When in the spring of 1941 German forces were based in Bulgaria to attack
Greece and Yugoslavia, the RAF sent a force of six Wellington bombers to bomb
the Sofia rail links in order to hamper the concentration of German troops. A
British night raid on April 13 made a lucky hit on an ammunition train, causing
major fires and widespread destruction. </div>
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Further small raids occurred on July 23
and August 11, 1941, which the Bulgarian government blamed on the Soviet air
force. Although Bulgaria did not actively participate in the Axis invasion of
the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, it gave supplies to Germany and allowed
German ships to use the major ports of Varna and Burgas. On September 13, 1942,
a further small Soviet raid hit Burgas, where German ships laden with
oil-drilling equipment were awaiting the signal to cross the Black Sea to
supply German engineers with the materials they would need to restart
production once the Caucasus oilfields had been captured. The Soviet Union was
not at war with Bulgaria and denied the intrusions in 1941 and 1942, for which
it was almost certainly responsible, but the attacks were of such small scale
that the Bulgarian government did not insist on reparations.</div>
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The handful of pinprick attacks in 1941 and 1942 were enough
to make Bulgaria anxious about what might happen if the Allies ever did decide
to bomb its cities heavily. Bulgaria’s position in the Second World War was an
ambiguous one. The tsar, Boris III, did not want his country to be actively
engaged in fighting a war after the heavy territorial and financial losses
Bulgaria had sustained in the peace settlement of 1919 as punishment for
joining with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the First World War. Only with great
reluctance and under German pressure did the Prime Minister, Bogdan Filov,
declare war on Britain and the United States on December 13, 1941. Aware of
Bulgaria’s vulnerability, the government and the tsar wanted to avoid an actual
state of belligerence with the Western powers, just as the country had refused
to declare war on the Soviet Union. Bulgaria’s small armed forces therefore
undertook no operations against the Allies; instead they were used by the
Germans as occupation troops in Macedonia and Thrace, territories given to
Bulgaria after the German defeat of Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941. By 1943 it
was evident to the Bulgarian government and people that they had once again
backed the wrong side. Much of the population was anti-German and some of it
pro-Soviet. In 1942 a left-wing Fatherland Front had been formed, demanding an
end to the war and the severing of links with Germany. Partisan movements in
the occupied territories and in Bulgaria itself became more active during 1943,
and in August of that year they launched a major recruitment drive. The
partisans were chiefly communist and campaigned not only for an end to the war
but for a new social order and closer ties with the Soviet Union. In May 1943
and again in October, Filov authorized contacts with the Western Allies to see
whether there was a possibility of reaching an agreement. He was told that only
unconditional surrender and the evacuation of the occupied territories could be
accepted.</div>
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It is against this background that sense can be made of the
Allied decision to launch a series of heavy air attacks on Bulgarian cities.
Knowing that Bulgaria was facing a mounting crisis, caught between its German
ally and the growing threat of a likely Soviet victory, Allied leaders were
encouraged to use bombing as a political tool in the hope that it might produce
a quick dividend by forcing Bulgaria out of the war. The idea that bombing was
capable of a sudden decisive blow by demoralizing a population and causing a
government crisis had been at the heart of much interwar thinking about the use
of airpower. It was the logic of the most famous statement of this principle,
made in 1921 by the Italian general Giulio Douhet in his classic study The
Command of the Air (Il dominio dell’aria). The principle was also a central
element in the view of airpower held by the British Prime Minister, Winston
Churchill, who had previously applied it to both Germany and Italy. It was not
by chance that in a meeting with the British chiefs of staff on October 19,
1943, it was Churchill who would suggest that in his view the Bulgarians were a
“peccant people to whom a sharp lesson should be administered.” Their fault was
to have sided once again with the Germans despite, Churchill claimed, his
efforts to get them to see sense. Bombing was designed to undo the cord that
bound Bulgaria to her German patron.</div>
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The sharp lesson was to be a heavy bombing attack on Sofia.
Churchill justified the operation on political grounds: “Experience shows,” he
told the meeting, “that the effect of bombing a country where there were
antagonistic elements was not to unite those elements, but rather to increase
the anger of the anti-war party.” Others present, including Air Chief Marshal
Sir Charles Portal, chief of the air staff, and the chief of the imperial
general staff, General Alan Brooke, were less keen and insisted that leaflets
should be dropped along with the bombs explaining that the Allies wanted
Bulgaria to withdraw its occupation troops and surrender (in the end leaflets
were dropped with the curious headline “This is not about Allied terror, but
about Bulgarian insanity”). But the idea of a “sharp lesson” quickly
circulated. The American military chiefs thought that Sofia was so low a
military priority that an attack was scarcely justified, but they were
impressed by the possible “great psychological effect.” Both the British and
American ambassadors in Ankara urged an attack so as to interrupt Turkish-German
commercial rail traffic. On October 24 the Anglo-American Combined Chiefs of Staff
directed General Dwight D. Eisenhower, supreme commander in the Mediterranean,
to give such a lesson as soon as this was operationally practical. The Turkish
government approved, hopeful perhaps despite neutrality to profit from
Bulgaria’s discomfiture in any postwar settlement. </div>
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Churchill wanted Stalin’s
say-so as well, because Bulgaria was clearly in the Soviet sphere of interest,
and on October 29 the British foreign minister, Anthony Eden, who was in Moscow
for negotiations, was able to report back Stalin’s comment that Sofia should
certainly be bombed, as it was nothing more than “a province of Germany.”</div>
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The Bulgarian government had expected bombing for some time.
While the regime struggled to come to terms with internal dissent, the Soviet
presence in the east, and Allied demands for unconditional surrender, it also
sought ways to appease the Germans in case they decided to occupy Bulgaria. In
the course of 1943 the deportation of Jews from the occupied areas of Thrace
was completed, and despite the hostility of the tsar, the German authorities in
Sofia persuaded the Bulgarian government to deport native Bulgarian Jews as
well. It was agreed that they would first be transferred to twenty small towns
in the hinterland around Sofia, and in May 1943 some 16,000 Jews were taken at
short notice from the capital and parceled out among eight provinces. The Filov
government linked the Jewish policy with bombing. When the Swiss ambassador
asked Filov on humanitarian grounds to stop sending Thracian Jews to Auschwitz,
Filov retorted that talk of humanity was misconceived when the Allies were busy
obliterating the cities of Europe from the air. Moreover, when he failed to
take up a British offer in February 1943 to transport 4,500 Jewish children
from Bulgaria to Palestine, he feared that Sofia might be bombed in
retaliation. Once the Jews of Sofia had been deported to the provinces, anxiety
revived again in Bulgaria that the Allies would now no longer hesitate to bomb
for fear of killing Jews. In the end the Jews of Bulgaria escaped not only
deportation to Auschwitz but also the bombing, which left much of Sofia’s
Jewish quarter in ruins.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-29153264901009535952015-08-10T05:01:00.001-07:002015-08-10T05:01:31.853-07:00Bombing Bulgaria II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dimitar Spisarevski (19 Jully 1916-20 December 1943) was a Bulgarian
fighter pilot known for taking down an American bomber by ramming it during the
bombing of Sofia in World War II.</i></b></div>
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It was not the Jewish question that invited Allied bombing
in November 1943, though many Bulgarians assumed that it was. The first raids
seemed to presage an onslaught of aerial punishment, and the population of the
capital gave way to a temporary panic. Yet the first two attacks in November
were followed by two desultory operations the next month and nothing more. Some
209 inhabitants in Sofia had been killed and 247 buildings damaged. The “sharp
lesson” was not sharp enough for the Allies, because it did little to encourage
Bulgaria to seek a political solution, while the military value of the attacks
was at best limited, hampered by poor bombing accuracy and gloomy Balkan weather.
On Christmas Day 1943, Churchill wrote to Eden that the “heaviest possible air
attacks” were now planned for Sofia in the hope that this might result in more
productive “political reactions.” On January 4, 1944, a large force of 108 B-17
Flying Fortresses was dispatched to Sofia, but with poor visibility the attack
was aborted after a few bombs were dropped on a bridge. Finally, on January 10,
1944, the first heavy attack was mounted by 141 B-17s, supported during the
night of January 10–11 by a force of some forty-four RAF Wellington bombers.
This attack was devastating for the Bulgarian capital: there were 750 dead and
710 seriously injured, with widespread damage to residential housing and public
buildings. The air-raid sirens failed to sound because of a power cut. This
time the population panicked entirely, creating a mass exodus. By January 16,
300,000 people had left the capital. The government abandoned the
administrative district and moved out to nearby townships. It took more than
two weeks to restore services in the capital, while much of the population
abandoned it permanently in fear of a repeat attack. On January 23 the German
ambassador telegraphed back to Berlin that the bombing had changed completely
the “psychological-political situation,” exposing the incompetence of the
authorities and raising the danger of Bulgarian defection. The government
ordered church bells to be pealed as an air-raid warning, in case of further
power cuts.</div>
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The second major raid, of January 10, did pay political
dividends. While Filov tried unsuccessfully to persuade a visiting German
general, Walter Warlimont, deputy for operations on Hitler’s staff, to mount a
revenge attack on neutral Istanbul—the consequences of which might well have
been even more disastrous for Bulgaria—most Bulgarian leaders had come to
realize that the German connection had to be severed as soon as possible and a
deal struck with the Allies. The bishop of Sofia used the occasion of the
funeral for the victims of the bombing to launch an attack on the government
for tying Bulgaria to Germany and failing to save the people from war. That
month an effort was made to get the Soviet Union to intercede with the Western
Allies to stop the bombing, but instead Moscow increased its pressure on
Bulgaria to abandon its support for the Axis. In February the first informal
contacts were made with the Allies through a Bulgarian intermediary in Istanbul
to see whether terms could be agreed upon for an armistice. Although hope for
negotiation had been the principal reason for starting the bombing, the Allied
reaction to the first Bulgarian approach following the raids was mixed.
Roosevelt wrote to Churchill on February 9 suggesting that the bombing should
now be suspended if the Bulgarians wanted to talk, a view shared by British
diplomats in the Middle Eastern headquarters in Cairo. Churchill scrawled
“why?” in the margin of the letter. He was opposed to ending the bombing
despite a recent report from the British Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC),
which observed that the first bombing in November 1943 had achieved no
“decisive political result.” He had already authorized the bombing of the
Bulgarian ports of Burgas and Varna, which were added to the list of priority
targets, subject to political considerations. </div>
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In January 1944 the British War
Cabinet, in the event of a German gas attack, considered the possibility of
retaliatory gas bomb attacks against Germany and its allies, and included
Bulgaria on the list. On February 12, Churchill replied to Roosevelt that in
his view the bombing had had “exactly the effect we hoped for” and urged him to
accept the argument that bombing should continue until the Bulgarians began
full and formal negotiations: “If the medicine has done good, let them have
more of it.” Roosevelt immediately wired back his full agreement: “Let the good
work go on.”</div>
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Some of the evidence coming out of Bulgaria seemed to
support Churchill’s stance. Intelligence reports arrived detailing the rapid
expansion of both the communist partisan movement and the Fatherland Front. The
partisans contacted the Allies through a British liaison officer stationed in
Bulgaria, encouraging them to keep up the bombing in order to provoke the
collapse of the pro-German regime and help expand support for the resistance.
The partisans sent details about the central administrative area in Sofia,
bordered by the recently renamed Adolfi Hitler Boulevard, which they said was
ripe for attack; at the same time, partisan leaders asked the Allies not to
bomb the working-class districts of Sofia, from which most of their recruits
were drawn. By March the partisans were finally organized by the Bulgarian
communists into the National Liberation Revolutionary Army. As a result of the
evidence on the ground, the Western Allies, with Stalin’s continued though
secret support (the Soviet Union did not want Bulgarians to think they had
actively abetted the bombing), accepted Eden’s argument that by “turning on the
heat” on Bulgarian cities it might shortly be possible either to provoke a coup
d’état or to batter the government into suing for peace. On March 10, Sir
Charles Portal told Churchill that he had ordered heavy attacks on Sofia and
other Bulgarian cities as soon as possible.</div>
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On March 16 and then on March 29–30 the Allies launched the
most destructive attacks of all on Sofia, as well as subsidiary attacks on
Burgas, Varna, and Plovdiv in the interior, designed to disrupt rail
communications and sea traffic for the Turkish trade with Germany. The attacks
were aimed predominantly at the administrative city center of Sofia and carried
a proportion of incendiaries, 4,000 in all, in order to do to Sofia what had
been done so effectively to German targets. The raid of March 16 burned down
the royal palace; the heavy raid of March 29–30 by 367 B-17s and B-24s, this
time carrying 30,000 incendiaries, created a widespread conflagration,
destroying the Holy Synod of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the National
Theater, several ministries, and a further 3,575 buildings, but killing only
139 of the population that had remained. The last major raid, on April 17 by
350 American bombers, destroyed a further 750 buildings and heavily damaged the
rail marshaling yard. During 1944 the death toll in Sofia was 1,165, a figure
that would have been considerably higher had it not been for the voluntary
evacuation of the capital. The incendiary attacks hastened the disintegration
of Bulgarian politics and increased support for the Soviet Union, whose armies
were now within striking distance. But only on June 20, 1944, several months
after the bombing, did the new government of Ivan Bagryanov begin formal
negotiations for an end to Bulgarian belligerency, still hoping to keep
Bulgaria’s territorial spoils and avoid Allied occupation. By this time the
Allies had lost interest in bombing Bulgaria, which slipped further down the
list of priority targets as the bombers turned their attention to Budapest and
Bucharest in the path of the oncoming Red Army.</div>
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By the summer of 1944 the Allies had other preoccupations,
and it seemed evident that Bulgarian politics had been sufficiently destabilized
by the bombing to make further attacks redundant. Nevertheless, the final
assessment of the effects of the bombing was ambivalent. In July the U.S. Joint
Chiefs of Staff prepared an evaluation of the Balkan bombings which suggested
that the psychological effects desired had largely been achieved; the report
nevertheless suggested that the enemy had sustained an effective propaganda
campaign about the high level of civilian casualties, which had undermined the
prestige of both the United States and Britain in the eyes of the Bulgarian
people. The chiefs directed that in the future any attacks in the region had to
be confined to “targets of definite military importance” and civilian
casualties minimized. The British chiefs of staff rejected the American claim,
and, in defiance of what they well knew to be the case, insisted that only
military targets had been subject to attack, even if this had involved damage
to housing and civilian deaths. Their report concluded that Allied bombers
ought always to be able to act in this way and that operations “should not be
prejudiced by undue regard for the probable scale of incidental casualties.”
This was a view consistent with everything the RAF had argued and practiced
since the switch to the deliberate bombing of German civilians in 1941.</div>
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For the historian the judgment is more complex. Bombing
almost certainly contributed to the collapse of any pro-German consensus and
strengthened the hand both of the moderate center-left in the Fatherland Front
and of the more radical partisan movement. But in the end this did not result
in a complete change of government until September 9, 1944, when the Soviet
presence produced a Fatherland Front administration dominated by the Bulgarian
Communist Party (a political outcome that neither Churchill nor Eden had wanted
from the bombing). Moreover, other factors played an important role in
Bulgarian calculations: the crisis provoked by Italian defeat and surrender in
September 1943; the German retreat in the Soviet Union; and fear of a possible
Allied Balkan invasion or of Turkish intervention. Where Churchill saw bombing
as a primitive instrument for provoking political crisis and insisted
throughout the period from October 1943 to March 1944 that this was the key to
knocking Bulgaria out of the war, the American military chiefs continued to
give preference to the bombing of Italy and Germany and were less persuaded
that a political dividend was certain. For them the bombing fitted with the
strategy of wearing down Germany’s capacity for waging war by interrupting the
supply of vital war matériel and forcing the diversion of German military units
from the imminent Normandy campaign. There was also a price to pay for the
bombing. In September 1944, following the Bulgarian surrender, some 332
American air force prisoners of war were sent by air shuttle to Istanbul and
then on to Cairo; some had been shot down while bombing Bulgaria, others on
their way to or from attacks on Romanian targets. An American report suggested
that the prisoners had been badly maltreated. Two air force prisoners were
killed by the Bulgarian police, and an estimated 175 American war dead were presumed
to be on Bulgarian territory, although only eighty-four bodies could be
located.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-12268850590851703362015-07-16T01:55:00.002-07:002015-07-16T01:55:51.623-07:00SYRIA – WWII Political<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Australian troops just before they advance into
French-mandated Syria in collaboration with Free French forces, 10 July 1941.</span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In 1936 French Premier Léon Blum promised
Syria its independence, but his government fell before the decision could be
carried out. After the defeat France in FALL GELB in May–June 1940, Syrian
mandate authorities and the local Foreign Legion garrison sided with the Vichy
governor, Henri Dentz, against the Free French. Syria became a battleground
when Free French, British, Australian, and Indian Army forces—some shipped
north from East Africa—invaded on June 8, 1941. After five weeks of fighting
that required British reinforcement from North Africa, Dentz agreed to an
armistice on July 4. Charles de Gaulle was enraged to learn the surrender of
Syria and the Levant was made to the British rather than to his delegate. The
dispute nearly led to a breach between “Fighting France” and Winston Churchill.
A compromise was reached in which de Gaulle agreed that the Middle East theater
of operations was a special case: liberated territories of the French Empire in
the Middle East would be administered by the British, whose pressing and wide
security interests required direct authority. Suspicions about London’s
intentions for the rest of the French Empire were allayed after British forces
liberated Madagascar and handed the island to de Gaulle. After the war, the French
sought to return to the status quo antebellum in Syria, fighting to repress
local nationalists and Ba’athists until April 1946. Then they withdrew and
Syria became independent.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">#</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Syria was then turned over to the Free
French authorities. The French recognized Syria’s independence but continued to
occupy the country, which was used as an Allied base for the rest of the war.
Free French Commander General Georges Catroux became Syria’s Delegate-General
and Plenipotentiary. French authorities declared martial law, imposed strict
press censorship, and arrested political subversives. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In July 1943, following pressure from Great
Britain, France announced new elections. A nationalist government came to power
that August, electing as president Syrian nationalist Shukri al-Quwwatti, one
of the leaders of the 1925–1927 uprising against the French. France granted
Syria independence on 1 January 1944, but the country remained under
Anglo-French occupation for the remainder of the war. In January 1945, the
Syrian government announced the formation of a national army, and in February
it declared war on the Axis powers.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Syria became a charter member of United
Nations in March 1945. In early May 1945, anti-French demonstrations erupted
throughout Syria, whereon French forces bombarded Damascus, killing 400
Syrians. British forces then intervened. A United Nations resolution in
February 1946 called on France to evacuate the country, and by 15 April, all
French and British forces were off Syrian soil. Evacuation Day, 17 April, is
still celebrated as a Syrian national holiday.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-43367550700029254952015-07-16T01:50:00.002-07:002015-07-16T01:50:48.653-07:00SECULAR NATIONALISMS IN THE MIDDLE EAST <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYuCQhkJMZKJD19JJJ1spGEtpI1lmSDmRublQI6pQ3qKiz6mOdRa6zsJvtXApbDWvVFRjTRJxiHR50Os99eaLcWCPZVrQ2aliJv0nnrM6lNd3cpCJtGAf0bo-7_BOd9gh396Efy4ZTk3om/s1600/300px-030Arab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYuCQhkJMZKJD19JJJ1spGEtpI1lmSDmRublQI6pQ3qKiz6mOdRa6zsJvtXApbDWvVFRjTRJxiHR50Os99eaLcWCPZVrQ2aliJv0nnrM6lNd3cpCJtGAf0bo-7_BOd9gh396Efy4ZTk3om/s400/300px-030Arab.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Arab Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918. The
Arabs are carrying the Arab Flag of the Arab Revolt and pictured in the Arabian
Desert.</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Prior to World War I (1914–1918), secular nationalism in the
Middle East was largely confined to military and administrative elites with
Western educations. In the Islamic and multiethnic Ottoman Empire, such elites
established Turkish and Arab cultural associations and secret nationalist
societies after the constitutional revolutions of 1908 and 1909. Of the Middle
Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, only in Egypt did nationalism emerge
as something approaching a popular movement before World War I. The country had
become almost independent under a dynasty of governors established by the
ethnic Albanian, Mehmet Ali (1770–1849). </div>
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<br /></div>
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By the end of the 1870s, bureaucrats, journalists, military
officers, and landowners had begun to protest intensive political and economic
intervention in Egyptian affairs by European powers. The protests were
expressed in terms of Ottoman and Islamic identity as well as Egyptian
territorial nationalism. A broadly based movement against European intervention
and for constitutional government coalesced around Ahmad ‘Ur<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ā</span>b<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ī</span>
(1839–1911), a military officer and minister of war. In 1882 a British invasion
force suppressed his movement and thus began the occupation of the country.
Until after World War I, the Egyptian independence movement remained primarily
one of Western-oriented landowners, journalists, and lawyers, exemplified by
Mustafa Kamil (1874–1908) and his National Party. </div>
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World War I brought the destruction of the Ottoman Empire.
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Mustafa Kemal Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk (1881–1938), along with other former Ottoman officers
and officials, established the Turkish Republic in 1923 in the reconquered
areas. The new state’s ideology, known as Kemalism, emphasized secularism,
Turkish nationalism, and republicanism as the basis of political identity.
These ideas were inculcated with remarkable rapidity through the school system
and the conscript army. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Egyptians resumed their struggle against British control
after World War I with a popular revolt in 1919. The country gradually gained
independence through a series of treaties signed with Great Britain in 1922,
1936, and 1954. The most influential party in this period was the secular,
nationalist Wafd (Delegation) Party, led first by Sa’d Zaghl<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ū</span>l,
(1857–1927), another landowning lawyer. The Wafd’s influence peaked in the
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movement and a critic of the secularism of the Egyptian elite. </div>
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nationalism, which became predominant in the Arab Levant and Fertile Crescent
after World War I. During the war, in 1916, Sharif Husayn (1835–1931) of Mecca
had launched a British-supported Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
Although some members of the prewar secret Arab nationalist societies joined
his revolt, most of his followers were motivated by tribal loyalties and
British subsidies, rather than by nationalist ideals. Following the war, the
Arab Levant and Fertile Crescent were divided into four League of Nations
mandates. These were Iraq, Syria (including Lebanon), Palestine, and
Transjordan, each of which was promised eventual independence as a
nation-state. Iraq, established as a monarchy under British supervision, gained
independence in 1932. Iraqi Arab nationalism, with strong overtones of Pan-Arab
nationalism, was inculcated through the newly established school system, youth
organizations, and the conscript army. Army officers in particular resented
continued British influence in Iraqi affairs. The mandate for Syria, under
French tutelage, was constituted as two republics, Syria and Lebanon, both of
which gained independence in 1946. </div>
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After an anti-French revolt lasting from 1925 to 1927,
leading Syrian politicians formed the National Bloc as the principal
association working for independence. The Bloc’s supporters spread Syrian Arab
and Pan-Arab nationalism through the school system, Boy Scout troops, and
athletic clubs. Syrian and Pan-Arab nationalism expanded similarly in Lebanon,
but they competed with a specifically Lebanese nationalism that was strong
especially among Maronite Christians, who were traditionally close to the French.
The most significant political party expressing Lebanese nationalism was the
Phalange, established in 1936 by Pierre Gemayel (1905–1984). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Palestine, under British control, also saw the spread of
Arab nationalism in much the same manner as Syria. However, the Zionist
movement, benefiting by British protection, made the quest for Palestinian
independence even more difficult. By 1935, five Arab nationalist political
parties had been established in the country, though some had no popular
followings. Palestinians launched an uprising against Great Britain and the
Zionists in 1936, which the British put down by 1939. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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The Arab world in the 1940s experienced the intensification
of Pan-Arab nationalism. This was true even in Egypt, where the League of Arab
States was headquartered after its creation in 1945. Widespread support in the
Arab world for the struggle of the Palestinian Arabs against Zionist
colonization further magnified Pan-Arab sentiments, although allied Arab armies
were defeated by the new state of Israel in the 1948 Palestine War. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Outside of the former Ottoman Empire, Iran also experienced
secular nationalism after World War I. There, as in Turkey, the emergence of
secular nationalism was a state-led development. In 1926, the army’s commander
in chief, Reza Khan (1878–1944), brought an end to the ruling Qajar dynasty and
established himself as shah, taking the name of Pahlavi for his dynasty. Modeling
his program on that of Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk, Reza Shah strove to inculcate in
the Iranian people a secular Persian identity drawing on Iran’s pre-Islamic
traditions. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
With considerably less success than Atat<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ü</span>rk,
Reza Shah advanced these ideas especially through a new secular school system
and the military, and he created a secular legal system intended to replace
Islamic courts. He abdicated and was replaced by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
(1919–1980), in 1941, early in the British- Soviet occupation of the country.
In the same year, the Iran Party was formed as a secular nationalist party
opposed to the authoritarianism of the shah and to foreign interventionism. The
Iran Party joined Islamist and leftist parties in the National Front,
established in 1949 and led by the democratic reformer Muhammad Musaddiq
(1881–1967). The National Front government of 1951–1953 was overthrown in a
military coup supported by the United States and Great Britain, thus restoring
effective authority to the shah.</div>
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran Between Two
Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982. Diekhoff, Alain.
Invention of a Nation: Zionist Thought and the Making of Modern Israel. New
York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Khalidi, Rashid, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad
Muslih, and Reeva S. Simon, eds. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1991. Khalidi, Rashid. Palestinian Identity: The
Construction of Modern National Consciousness. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1997. Khoury, Philip S. Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of
Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2002. Massad, Joseph A. Colonial Effects: The Making of
National Identity in Jordan. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Salibi,
Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1988 Simon, Reeva S. Iraq Between the Two World
Wars: The Militarist Origins of Tyranny, updated edition. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2004.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-74809517759441879862015-06-30T01:37:00.003-07:002015-06-30T01:37:45.994-07:00Air War Over Iraq I<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXZu8dhNg0NjsPodsxV-f2PiL6LzXWYUWlCVMxC2mPyGqLz6zFEKqNe4vzCyE0Qivgdl35KRf5h-gUU27DBZYyxBD1FbUHVfKBDQJ9-SvRfXFDa-K31flQGzCsA4RxdNUEe_Vsx9SZ6v0t/s1600/fvdfddf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXZu8dhNg0NjsPodsxV-f2PiL6LzXWYUWlCVMxC2mPyGqLz6zFEKqNe4vzCyE0Qivgdl35KRf5h-gUU27DBZYyxBD1FbUHVfKBDQJ9-SvRfXFDa-K31flQGzCsA4RxdNUEe_Vsx9SZ6v0t/s400/fvdfddf.jpg" width="295" /></a></div>
<h3 class="a-size-large a-spacing-none" id="title" style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.amazon.com/HITLERS-GULF-WAR-Fight-Iraq/dp/184884090X" target="_blank"><span class="a-size-large" id="productTitle">HITLER'S GULF WAR: The Fight for Iraq 1941</span></a></h3>
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</xml><![endif]--><i><b>During the spring of 1941, on an isolated, indefensible airfield 55 miles from Baghdad a group of poorly armed and outnumbered RAF airman equipped with obsolete aircraft, together with a few soldiers, outfought the much larger and better equipped Iraqi forces who were aided by the Germans and Italians. The engagement would prove to be the first real defeat of the Germans in World War Two. After an heroic defense, the airfield was finally relieved by a hastily assembled column of trucks, taxis, buses and antiquated armored cars carrying infantry and Bedouins. The column had fought its way across a 500 mile barren, unmapped desert enduring temperatures approaching fifty degrees C to reach the airfield. In a gigantic game of bluff less than fifteen hundred soldiers supported by the RAF in their obsolete aircraft against odds of twenty to one went on to take Baghdad. They foiled a coup, returned a King to his throne and destroyed Axis aspirations in the Middle East.This book is based on the research into a wide range of official, academic and public sources. It uses reported American, British, German, Italian and Iraqi dialogue to produce this remarkable account of a thirty day war in Iraq in 1941, how it played out and how it set the scene for Iraq's turbulent future which has come to haunt the West. </b></i><br />
<br />
<i><b>REVIEWS ...charts the events in 1941 during the Iraqi uprising and the sterling defense put up by a small RAF base in Habbaniya ...a fascinating story...well worth investing in..." Model Airplane International UK, 06/2010</b></i><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">In May 1941, British forces were fighting to keep Iraq in
Allied hands -- a struggle that belatedly involved German and Italian aircraft
as well. </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">By Kelly Bell</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
At 2 a.m.
on April 30, 1941,
officials in the British Embassy in Baghdad
were awakened by Iraqi military convoys rumbling out of the Rashid Barracks,
across bridges and into the desert toward the Royal Air Force (RAF) training
base near the Iraqi town of Habbaniya.
They immediately sent wireless signals to the air base's ranking commander, Air
Vice Marshal Harry George Smart. With his base not set up or prepared for
combat, Smart initially could think of little to do other than sound the
general alarm -- neglecting to announce the reason. The base speedily
degenerated into a madhouse of scared, sleep-sodden, bewildered cadets,
instructors and sundry other personnel.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the spring of 1941, the RAF's No. 4 Service Flying
Training School (SFTS) at Habbaniya held just 39 men who knew how to fly an
airplane. As May began, however, those instructors -- few of whom had combat
experience -- and their students found they were the principal obstacle to a
military operation that might well have brought Britain to its knees.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There are those who call the fight for Habbaniya airfield
the second Battle of Britain. Fought half a year after the exhaustively
chronicled 1940 air campaign that blunted German hopes of neutralizing or
conquering England, this Mideastern shootout was at least as crucial to the
outcome of World War II -- yet few have heard of it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The prize over which the campaign raged was crude oil.
Although Britain
had granted Iraq
independence in 1927, the British empire still
maintained a major presence there, since Britain's oil jugular passed
through that Arab kingdom. On April
3, 1941, militant anti-British attorney Rashid Ali el Gailani led a
coup d'tat that set him up as chief of the National Defense government. This
Anglophobic barrister's dearest ambition was to expel by military force all
Englishmen from the Middle East. He set about
enlisting the assistance of like-minded Egyptians who vaguely promised to
organize an uprising of their army in Cairo.
He contacted German forces in Greece
-- which had just fallen to the Third Reich -- to inform them of his intentions
and solicit their support. He also let Maj. Gen. Erwin Rommel's <i>Afrika Korps</i>,
newly arrived in Libya,
know they could count on the support of pro-Axis Vichy French forces in Syria to
provide easy access to Iraq.
Finally, he told the Germans he would secure for them unrestricted use of all
military facilities in Iraq,
whether or not they were held by the British.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Until Rashid Ali's coup, British forces in the region --
falsely comforted by the 1927 treaty, by which Iraq and the United Kingdom
were technically bound as allies -- anticipated little trouble beyond scattered
anti-British riots by civilians. Rashid Ali's pro-Axis overtures set Prime
Minister Winston Churchill at odds with his commander in the Middle
East, General Sir Archibald Wavell. Wavell insisted that he had
his hands full as it was, between evacuating Greece, preparing for an expected
German invasion of Crete and dealing with
Rommel's recent North African offensive. Churchill recognized the threat that
an Axis inroad in Iraq
would pose to the empire. It could deprive Britain of crude oil from the
fields in northern Iraq,
sever its air link with India
and encourage further anti-British uprisings throughout the Arab mandates.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As a first response, the 2nd Brigade of the 10th Indian
Division landed at Basra
on the night of April 29, with the rest of the division soon to follow, along
with the aircraft carrier <i>Hermes</i> and two cruisers. On learning of that
development, Rashid Ali mobilized his Iraqi army and air force supporters and
dispatched them to seize Habbaniya air base.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Situated on low ground next to the Euphrates River
less than 60 miles from Baghdad,
Habbaniya was overlooked 1,000 yards to the south by a 150-foot-high plateau.
Beyond that was Lake
Habbaniya, from which
British flying boats evacuated the base's civilian personnel, including women
and children, on April 30. The base's cantonment housed 1,000 RAF personnel and
the 350-man 1st Battalion of the King's Own Royal Regiment. There were also
1,200 Iraqi and Assyrian constabulary organized in six companies, but the
British could only rely on the four companies of Assyrian Christians, who
devoutly hated Iraqis of different extraction. Aside from 1st Company, RAF
Armoured Cars, with its 18 outdated Rolls-Royce vehicles, the principal
weaponry available to the base was its aircraft, the most potent of which were
nine obsolete Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and a Bristol Blenheim Mk.I
bomber. The other planes at the school comprised 26 Airspeed Oxfords, eight
Fairey Gordons and 30 Hawker Audaxes. Aside from the unsuitability of its
aircraft for combat, Habbaniya's greatest vulnerability lay in its dependence
on a single electric power station that powered the pumps necessary to supply
its base with water.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During the chaos following the alarm, the Iraqis arrived and
set up artillery along the plateau running along the far side of the base's
landing field. This was a ghastly surprise for Air Vice Marshal Smart, who sent
out an Audax trainer to reconnoiter at daybreak on April 30. The crew's initial
report was that the highlands were alive with what looked like more than 1,000
soldiers with fieldpieces, aircraft and armored vehicles. At 6 a.m. an Iraqi officer appeared at
the camp's main gate and handed over a letter that read: "For the purpose
of training we have occupied the Habbaniya Hills. Please make no flying or the
going out of any force of persons from the cantonment. If any aircraft or
armored car attempts to go out it will be shelled by our batteries, and we will
not be responsible for it."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Such comportment of forces on a "training
exercise" struck Smart as disquietingly inappropriate, so he typed out the
following reply for the courier: "Any interference with training flights
will be considered an ‘act of war' and will be met by immediate counter-offensive
action. We demand the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces from positions which are
clearly hostile and must place my camp at their mercy."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Smart next had his ground crews dig World War I–style
trenches and machine gun pits around the base's seven-mile perimeter, pathetic
defenses against aerial attack and shelling from elevated positions. That left
the cadets and pilots to arm, fuel and position their aircraft in 100-degree
heat. The young men shoved their planes into the safest possible locations -- behind
buildings and trees, where they were still vulnerable.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Habbaniya's RAF base commander, Group Captain W.A.B. Savile,
divided his airplanes into four squadrons. The Audaxes were organized as A, C
and D squadrons, under Wing Commanders G. Silyn-Roberts, C.W.M. Wing and John
G. Hawtrey, respectively. B Squadron, under Squadron Leader A.G. Dudgeon,
operated 26 Oxfords, eight Gordons and the Blenheim. In addition to the
squadrons, Flight Lt. R.S. May led the Gladiators as a Fighter Flight from the
polo ground. Although most of the planes were old, there were an impressive
number of them. Of the 35 flying instructors on hand, however, only three had
combat experience, and there were even fewer seasoned bombardiers and gunners.
Smart selected the best of the cadets to bolster those numbers, while the
ground crews installed racks and crutches for 250-pound and 20-pound bombs on
the trainers.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the evening of April 30, the British ambassador to Iraq radioed
Smart that he regarded the Iraqi actions up to that point as acts of war and
urged Smart to immediately launch air attacks. He also reported he had informed
the Foreign Office in London
of the Habbaniya situation and that His Majesty's diplomats both in Baghdad and London were urging the
Iraqis to withdraw -- without response.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Habbaniya received four more wireless messages in the small
hours of May 1. First, the ambassador promised to support any action Smart
decided to take, although Smart would likely have preferred to have a
high-ranking military figure giving him that backing. Second, the commander in
chief, India
(Habbaniya was still part of India Command), advised Smart to attack at once.
The third dispatch was from the British commander in Basra, announcing that because of extensive
flooding he could send no ground forces, but would try to provide air support.
Smart finally heard from London:
The Foreign Office -- again, civilians -- authorized him to make any tactical
decisions himself, on the spot.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Meanwhile, by May 1 the Iraqi forces surrounding Habbaniya
had swelled to an infantry brigade, two mechanized battalions, a mechanized
artillery brigade with 12 3.7-inch howitzers, a field artillery brigade with 12
18-pounder cannons and four 4.5-inch howitzers, 12 armored cars, a mechanized
machine gun company, a mechanized signal company and a mixed battery of
anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. This totaled 9,000 regular troops, along with
an undetermined number of tribal irregulars, and about 50 guns.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-69720424492566094752015-06-30T01:31:00.002-07:002015-06-30T01:31:48.286-07:00Air War Over Iraq II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheevXISMO1KQjZAZT0k8cbdv2nS8kL0v3qQyEqNV4Xk1TvAFQnr5BaMWbPnKLkfGm3AbkEWtAuP2Gkwg2abBl9O8XV7EYb9T83DU29ariCkO_NJcNDdg9CKZN-IMg545SoxyrZG2BOCISH/s1600/19cx_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="137" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheevXISMO1KQjZAZT0k8cbdv2nS8kL0v3qQyEqNV4Xk1TvAFQnr5BaMWbPnKLkfGm3AbkEWtAuP2Gkwg2abBl9O8XV7EYb9T83DU29ariCkO_NJcNDdg9CKZN-IMg545SoxyrZG2BOCISH/s400/19cx_1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Supporting those ground forces were elements of the Royal
Iraqi air force, including 63 British, Italian and American-built warplanes
equal to or newer than those at Habbaniya. Number 1 (Army Co-operation)
Squadron at Mosul
had 25 airworthy Hawker Nisrs, export variants of the Audax powered by Bristol
Pegasus radial engines. Number 4 (Fighter) Squadron at Kirkuk possessed nine Gladiators. At Baghdad
No. 5 (Fighter) Squadron had 15 Breda Ba.65 attack planes, while at Rashid No.
7 (Fighter-Bomber) Squadron could field 15 Douglas
8A-4s, as well as four Savoia S.M.79B twin-engine bombers purchased from Italy in 1937.
On paper, at least, the Iraqi air force had the RAF outclassed at Habbaniya.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Smart contacted his ambassador in Baghdad to issue an ultimatum for the Iraqis
to start withdrawing from Habbaniya by 8
a.m. on May 2. In that way should they refuse to heed the deadline,
the whole day would be available for combat. Smart was still unsure of how far
London would support him if he engaged the armed forces of a country not
clearly defined as an Axis power. His maddening uncertainty was tardily
banished by a May 1 telegram from Churchill: "If you have to strike,
strike hard."</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
That emboldened the harried commander to make the first
move. He had learned from a radio message that 10 Vickers Wellington bombers
from No. 70 Squadron had arrived at Basra.
With expectations of their support, he would launch an airstrike at dawn on May
2. Although an aerial assault against well-dug-in armored forces had never
succeeded before, Smart was upbeat, remarking, "They should be in full
retreat within about three hours."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Smart refused to withdraw the aircrewmen and
least-experienced students from the trenches despite their doubtful ability,
even bolstered by 400 Arab auxiliaries, to stop an armored charge. Knowing that
their ground crews' availability to service returning machines would be
critical in the fight to come, Smart's squadron commanders furtively toured the
perimeter late on the night of May 1 and led the necessary personnel away from
their fighting positions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At 4:30
on the morning of May 2, 1941,
the first flying machine cranked its engines on Habbaniya airfield. Thirty
minutes later 35 Audaxes, Gordons and Oxfords were showering bombs on the
Iraqis, joined by Wellingtons of Nos. 70 and 37 squadrons from Basra. The Iraqis were well dug-in on broken
ground that provided good cover and concealment, so the British saw few
potential targets at first. The Iraqis, unable to draw beads on the airplanes
in the darkness, retaliated by shelling the air base, but the gun flashes gave
away their positions. The Audaxes dropped explosives on the anti-aircraft gun
pits while the Wellingtons'
turret gunners strafed them. The Iraqi anti-aircraft gunners used many tracers,
again marking their positions for the British airmen to attack or avoid. After
bombing from just 1,000 feet for maximum accuracy, the British carefully
scanned the plateau for suitable future targets.</div>
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<br /></div>
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As soon as an aircraft landed, one of its two crewmen (they
alternated) would hurry to the operations control room, report on the results
of his raid and suggest targets for the next flight. Meanwhile, the other crew
member would oversee ground personnel in making repairs, refueling and rearming
the aircraft. The planes' engines were generally kept running. As soon as the first
crew member returned with a new assignment, the two would board their machine
and return to the fray.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Wellingtons performed well on the first day, but being
big they attracted the eagle's share of ground fire as well as half-hearted
attacks from two Iraqi Gladiators and two Douglas 8As. One damaged
"Wimpy" was forced to land at Habbaniya and then set on fire by Iraqi
artillery shells; nine other damaged bombers were declared unserviceable when
they returned to Basra.
Ground fire brought down an Oxford flown by Flying Officer D.H. Walsh, and
Pilot Officer P.R. Gillespy's Audax failed to return.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Smart's estimate that the Iraqis would cut and run within
three hours proved seriously overoptimistic. By 12:30 p.m., after 7 1/2 hours of almost-constant aerial
assault, they were still shelling the base, and at 10 a.m. their air force had joined in,
destroying three aircraft on the airfield. One of the Gladiator pilots, Flying
Officer R.B. Cleaver, was trying to intercept an S.M.79B when his guns failed,
but Flying Officer J.M. Craigie caused a Ba.65 to break off its strafing
attack.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By day's end, the British had flown 193 recorded operational
sorties -- six per man. The RAF had lost 22 of its 64 aircraft, and 10 pilots
were dead or critically wounded, but only a crippling injury was deemed
sufficient to send a man to the infirmary.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although the Iraqis had been sorely hurt and showed no
inclination to launch a ground attack, they were still firmly ensconced atop
their elevation with a variety of fieldpieces trained on the smoking flying
school. Furthermore, that afternoon Iraqi troops invaded the British Embassy in
Baghdad and
confiscated every wireless transceiver and telephone, leaving the only two
significant English outposts in the region isolated from each other.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By that evening, Dudgeon and Hawtrey were the only squadron
commanders not dead or hospitalized. They decided that the next day Hawtrey
would command all remaining Audaxes and Gladiators from the base's polo field,
which was visually screened from the artillery by a row of trees. Dudgeon would
direct all Oxfords and Gordons from the cratered landing field.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Meanwhile, the Committee of Imperial Defense had transferred
command of land forces in Iraq
to Middle East Command, compelling Wavell to assemble whatever elements he
could spare into a relief unit, called Habforce, to march the 535 miles from Haifa to Habbaniya.
Rashid Ali's leaders also appealed for help, but the Germans were preparing for
their invasions of Crete and the Soviet Union, and the Italian response was slow. Only the
Vichy French in Syria
agreed to send arms and German-supplied intelligence to the Iraqis. They also
promised the use of Syrian airfields to any aircraft that the Germans or
Italians were willing to commit to Iraq.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On May 3, Smart, noting that the Iraqi artillery had not
caused as much damage as he feared it would, called for the RAF to launch some
preemptive strikes against the Iraqi air bases. Three Wellingtons of No. 37
Squadron bombed Rashid, also claiming to have shot down a Nisr and damaged
another. The Iraqi airmen struck back, but Cleaver attacked an S.M.79B, which
he last saw diving away with its left engine smoking. One of the Gordon pilots,
Flight Lt. David Evans, developed a novel and risky but effective method of
dive-bombing. After the ground crewmen had affixed fuzes with a seven-second
delay to the 250-pound bombs, he would remove the safety devices. That meant
that if a bomb came loose from its fitting, it would probably explode seven
seconds later. After takeoff, Evans would climb to about 3,000 feet and scan
Iraqi positions. Then, diving at about 200 mph, he would yank back on the stick
and drop a bomb from six to 10 feet over the target -- too close to miss. Seven
seconds later, just as Evans made it to a safe distance, the bomb would
obliterate the target and rattle his teeth. This method so terrified the Iraqis
that they took to their heels without bothering to fire at the plunging Gordon.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although Rashid Ali's troops kept shelling Habbaniya, they
balked at storming the base. Their confidence was further undermined by the
arrival of four Blenheim Mk.IVF fighters from No. 203 Squadron on May 3. Eight
of No. 37 Squadron's Wellingtons bombed buildings and strafed aircraft at
Rashid on May 4 but lost a plane to a combination of 20mm ground fire and an
Iraqi Gladiator of No. 4 Squadron. The Wellington
crew was taken prisoner. Two Blenheim Mk.IVFs from Habbaniya also strafed Iraqi
aircraft at Rashid and Baghdad
airfields. At that same time, six Vickers Valentias and six Douglas DC-2s of
No. 31 Squadron were flying troops into Iraq and ferrying out civilian
evacuees. One of the DC-2s flew into Habbaniya with, among other supplies,
ammunition for a couple of World War I–era fieldpieces that for years had stood
as ornaments outside the officers' mess. To the garrison's surprise the old
guns proved still operable, and when they opened up on the plateau, the Iraqis
were convinced the British were being reinforced with artillery. The trainers
only flew 53 sorties that day, but they also flew night missions to deprive
their besiegers of sleep.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Still, the defenders were suffering much worse than their
foes seemed to realize. After four days of combat, just four of the original 26
Oxfords were still battle-worthy. The Audax, Gladiator and Gordon contingents
were similarly depleted. Pilots were also becoming even scarcer, as
half-trained cadets died in action or suffered from cracked nerves.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On May 6, an Audax returned from a dawn reconnaissance
mission with news that the Iraqis were withdrawing. That encouraged Colonel
O.L. Roberts of the 1st King's Own Royals, commander of ground forces at
Habbaniya, to mount an assault, backed by the Audaxes, to drive the enemy from
the plateau. The timing was perfect -- the Iraqis, their morale broken at last,
suddenly abandoned the heights in a disorderly withdrawal down the Baghdad road toward
Fallujah. Meanwhile, six Wellingtons
from No. 37 Squadron hit Rashid again.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
That afternoon the British spotted a column of Iraqi
reinforcements approaching from Fallujah, which soon ran into the forces
retreating from Habbaniya. In complete disregard for military procedure, both
groups stopped on the highway, and personnel jumped from their vehicles to
confer, leaving all their trucks, tanks and armored cars parked in plain view.
At that point, Savile hurled every remaining Audax, Gladiator, Gordon and Oxford he had -- 40
aircraft -- at the bunched-up mass of vehicles. The young airmen in their old
planes knew they would not have a better -- or another -- chance like this, and
they made the most of it with all the shells and bombs they could carry. The
two airstrikes took two hours, with the British flying 139 separate sorties.
One Audax was damaged by groundfire, but they left the Iraqi convoy in flames.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-33898794577223723842015-06-30T01:30:00.002-07:002015-06-30T01:30:46.984-07:00Air War Over Iraq III<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
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Habbaniya also came under Iraqi air attack, and two
Gladiator pilots were wounded by bomb splinters on the polo ground. One
Gladiator intercepted a Douglas 8A and, after
firing two bursts, drove it off.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Armed ground personnel and Arab auxiliaries ventured from
the airfield and rounded up 408 demoralized Iraqi prisoners, including 27
officers. Counting those POWs, Rashid Ali lost more than 1,000 men that day,
compared with seven British killed and 10 wounded.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The next day the British could find no trace of the enemy
near Habbaniya. A lone Nisr attacked at 10:45
a.m., but a Blenheim Mk.IVF of No. 203 Squadron shot it down in
flames. The British also raided the airfield at Baquba, during which Pilot
Officer J. Watson, piloting a Gladiator, encountered an Iraqi Gladiator,
attacked it from behind and last saw it in a steep dive. Back at Habbaniya,
ground personnel eventually found and shot up a few Iraqi machine gun nests in
the village of Dhibban just east of the airfield.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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In the previous five blazing days, Habbaniya's makeshift air
force had flown 647 recorded sorties, dropped more than 3,000 bombs of various
sizes, totaling over 50 tons, and fired more than 116,000 machine gun rounds.
The British lost just 13 airmen killed, 21 critically wounded and four to
emotional collapse. It was a smashing victory over Rashid Ali, who now faced
the British reprisal with a demoralized army and an air force that barely
existed.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the day that this motley fleet of RAF antiques was
reducing the combined Iraqi forces outside Habbaniya to junk, <i>Luftwaffe</i> Colonel
Werner Junck was in Berlin
being briefed by Chief of Air Force General Staff Hans Jeschonnek. The
colonel's new mission was to organize a special force called <i>Sonderkommando</i>
Junck, to be sent to Iraq.
When Jeschonnek stated, "The <i>Führer</i> desires a heroic gesture,"
Junck asked precisely what that meant. Jeschonnek replied, "An operation
which would have significant effect, leading perhaps to an Arab rising, in
order to start a jihad, or holy war, against the British." The Germans
were unaware that their erstwhile Mideast
allies had already been soundly defeated and that Habbaniya's garrison was at
almost that very moment receiving a message from Churchill: "Your vigorous
and splendid action has largely restored the situation. We are watching the
grand fight you are making. All possible aid will be sent."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Twelve Messerschmitt Me-110Cs of the 4th <i>Staffel</i>
(squadron) of <i>Zerstörergeschwader</i> (destroyer wing) 76 (4/ZG.76), two
Me-110Cs of ZG.26, seven Heinkel He-111Hs of 4th <i>Staffel</i>, <i>Kampfgeschwader</i>
(bomber wing) 4, and a transport contingent of 20 Junkers Ju-52/3ms and a few
Ju-90s were hastily decorated in Iraqi markings. They began flying to Mosul via Greece and Syria on May
11. In an ill-fated start, one He-111 was fired on by Arab tribesmen as it
approached Baghdad
airport. That plane landed with Major Axel von Blomberg, the <i>Luftwaffe</i>
liaison officer to Rashid Ali, dead.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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On May 12 British reconnaissance planes discovered several
German aircraft in Iraq,
and on the 14th one of No. 203 Squadron's Blenheims spotted a Ju-90 at Palmyra airport in Syria,
confirming Vichy French cooperation in violation of its nominal neutrality.
British aircraft -- including Curtiss Tomahawks of No. 250 Squadron, in the
first combat sorties ever flown by P-40s -- attacked Palmyra the same day. It was the first round
of hostilities that would ultimately lead to the British invasion of Syria in June.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Habbaniya struck at the <i>Luftwaffe</i> first when Flying
Officer E.C. Lane-Sansom, of No. 203 Squadron, strafed Mosul at 3:15 a.m on May 16. At 9:35 a.m. three He-111s bombed Habbaniya and were
themselves attacked by a Gladiator. Caught in the German gunners' crossfire,
Flying Officer Gerald D.F. Herrtage's fuel tank was hit, and though he bailed
out before his Gladiator exploded in flames, his parachute became tangled.
Herrtage's death was not in vain, however -- one Heinkel's engine was disabled,
resulting in a crash-landing before it reached Mosul. The Germans launched no further
bombing attacks, though that one had done more damage to Habbaniya than all the
previous Iraqi airstrikes combined.</div>
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<br /></div>
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On May 17, Habbaniya was reinforced by the arrival of four
more Gladiators of No. 94 Squadron and four modified, extra-long-range Hawker
Hurricane IIC cannon-equipped fighters. While flying their No. 94 Squadron
Gladiators over Rashid at 7:55
that morning, Sergeants William H. Dunwoodie and E.B. Smith attacked the two
ZG.26 Me-110s just as they were taking off. Smith's quarry crash-landed
southeast of the air base with both engines on fire, while Bill Dunwoodie's
disintegrated in a fiery midair explosion.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Habforce finally reached Habbaniya on May 18. The base was
no longer threatened, but Smart had suffered a nervous breakdown, and by some
reports also been injured in a motor vehicle mishap. He was sedated, loaded
onto a DC-2 with women and children evacuees and flown to Basra. Smart's emotional collapse was hardly
surprising -- he was primarily a school administrator, not a soldier -- yet
until Churchill's tardy response, every military officer above him had avoided
taking any responsibility for whatever happened at Habbaniya. Air Vice Marshal
John Henry D'Albiac took over command of the RAF in Iraq. Besides attacking the Germans
at Mosul, 200
miles away, Habbaniya's aircraft helped British forces at Fallujah fight off a
succession of Iraqi attempts to retake that town.</div>
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<br /></div>
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On May 20 Habbaniya's Gladiators and Hurricanes dueled with
four ZG.76 Me-110s over Fallujah. Sergeant Smith was jumped by five Me-110s and
narrowly escaped, but his Gladiator was sufficiently damaged for the Germans to
credit it to future night fighter ace Lieutenant Martin Drewes, as his first of
an eventual 52 victories. The fighting for Fallujah reached its peak on the
22nd, when the Iraqis, backed by light tanks, made a determined effort that
resulted in heavy casualties to both sides. Habbaniya's planes flew 56 sorties
in support of the British, attacking a column of 40 vehicles moving up to
reinforce the Iraqis, but losing one Audax to return fire. Removing the Lewis
machine gun from its rear mounting, Flying Officer L.I. Dremas -- a Greek
pilot-in-exile -- and his gunner fought a running gun battle with the Iraqis
until, aided by local levies, they reached British lines.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another Gladiator was brought down by groundfire on May 23,
but again the pilot evaded capture and reached friendly lines. Meanwhile the
Italians, after delays and only grudging help from the Vichy French, finally
flew 11 Fiat C.R.42 biplane fighters of the 155th <i>Squadriglia</i> (squadron)
to Rhodes, reaching Kirkuk on May 26. From there they began
strafing British troops, who by then were marching from Fallujah toward Baghdad. As
Habbaniya-based planes were supporting the British advance on May 29, they were
attacked by two Fiats, which forced an Audax to land damaged, with its pilot
wounded. Wing Commander W.T.F. "Freddie" Wightman of No. 94 Squadron
dived on one of the C.R.42s and shot it down, with the pilot, a 2nd Lt.
Valentini, bailing out and taken prisoner.</div>
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<br /></div>
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On May 30, Habforce, now numbering 1,200 men with eight guns
and a few RAF armored cars, lay just outside Baghdad, facing an Iraqi division. The RAF's
now-undisputed control of the air made a great difference, however. The Iraqis
refused to engage the dreaded British, and the RAF took over Baghdad's airfield. Realizing that the game
was up, Rashid Ali fled the capital after embezzling his soldiers' monthly
payroll of 17,000 dinars. His followers followed suit, and Iraq's
pro-British royal government was restored soon thereafter.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Italians, too, were sufficiently forewarned to depart Kirkuk for Syria on the
31st, burning two Fiats that were too damaged to fly out. <i>Sonderkommando</i>
Junck had a more ignominious departure, the last of its surviving personnel
escaping overland to Syria
on June 10, leaving behind the wrecks of all 14 Me-110s, five He-111s and two
transport planes. Those losses were far less damaging than the pounding their
prestige had taken in the eyes of the Arabs they had hoped to convert to the
Axis side. A quick, sizable German incursion in support of Rashid Ali would
have likely succeeded, but Adolf Hitler was too preoccupied with the looming
invasion of the Soviet Union to pay much
attention to events in obscure Iraq.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The implications of the Habbaniya battle are staggering. But
even the folks back in Mother England, distracted by the capture of German
Deputy <i>Führer</i> Rudolf Hess, took little notice at the time. Nonetheless,
history has an obligation to give full credit to the handful of pilots of No. 4
SFTS, who in five days had secured Britain's vital oil supply, as well
as denied Nazi Germany a foothold in the Middle East.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For further reading, try: <i>Dust Clouds in the Middle East</i>,
by Christopher Shores; <i>Hidden Victory</i>, by Air
Vice Marshal A.G. Dudgeon; and <i>Gloster Gladiator Aces</i>, by Andrew Thomas.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This article was written by Kelly Bell and originally
published in the May 2004 issue of <i>Aviation History</i>.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-83413340220495135452015-06-25T11:52:00.001-07:002015-06-30T01:26:37.883-07:00Orbat Syria 1941<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbou8zFXGKyxzkAJ3uSzzPsDb8PJZYVs-xlBOAlP3cfyPwY6DGziMCF3O7msWAgOOZP5uszgrsk1DJR-ongbD6ktDrFQRtkLUT8-aJh_yCsik-I3Uzo8IFfJLT-jSRWQQfpqLkqwhHtA8m/s1600/souffleur3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbou8zFXGKyxzkAJ3uSzzPsDb8PJZYVs-xlBOAlP3cfyPwY6DGziMCF3O7msWAgOOZP5uszgrsk1DJR-ongbD6ktDrFQRtkLUT8-aJh_yCsik-I3Uzo8IFfJLT-jSRWQQfpqLkqwhHtA8m/s400/souffleur3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Here’s a picture of the Souffleur.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">In June 1941, 3 French submarines of the 9e DSM
(Submarine Division) were based in Syria: Caiman, Souffleur and Marsouin.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">The 9, Caiman was seriously depth-charged. At 12:48
pm, Souffleur was detected on surface (charging batteries) and sunk by HMS
Parthian with 4 torpedoes.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Exporter was the British code-name for
their invasion of Vichy French Syria in June 1941. The attack was prompted by
the recent Vichy decision to supply the anti-British rebels in Iraq with arms
and to allow German aircraft transit rights in support of the operations of
these rebels. It seemed that the Germans were on their way to gaining control
of the territory -- a prospect obviously intolerable from the British point of
view. For their part, the French were uninterested in ceding control of their
colony to Britain, and were also concerned to demonstrate to the Germans that
they would defend their possessions vigorously if attacked by the British, thus
justifying continued French -- as opposed to German -- control of France's
overseas possessions. Ironically, both sides would be fighting at least
partially to ensure a Syria free from German control.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">At the beginning of June, Britain managed
to scrape together what she considered as sufficient force to overwhelm Vichy
resistance. It was hoped that the presence of a Free French column among the
invaders would soften the blow and render serious fighting unnecessary -- as
late as 21 May Churchill was describing the proposed operation as a 'armed
political inroad' and indeed the invasion itself began with usually futile
attempts to induce the French to give up without fighting. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">British expectations notwithstanding, several
factors combined to make French resistance both vigorous and effective. The
first was that the commander in Syria until May 1940 had been General Weygand,
who in spite of his failure to reverse the collapse of France when summoned
home at the time of the German invasion in 1940, was both an energetic officer
and a powerful figure in the French army. During his tenure in French Syria, he
had conceived the idea of landing in Salonika with the forces at his disposal,
and with that end in view, had formed out of the French Army of the Levant a
small but relatively powerful and battle-ready force of all arms numbering
about sixteen thousand men, the Groupement des Forces Mobiles du Levant. This
was aside from a numerically roughly equal force of less impressive native
auxiliaries, levies, and police forces of various types.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In spite of the disarmament clauses of the
armistice, the French force remained largely intact and moreover, had been been
thoroughly purged of British sympathizers in the wake of Mers el Kebir, Dakar,
and England's various efforts to bring the French colonies over to the Free
French cause. Those who remained regarded the Free French as traitors, had been
embittered by the various British attacks on French forces and possessions, and
were motivated to redeem the honor of France. What Britain had hoped would be a
relatively bloodless demonstration of force turned into a small but hard-fought
little campaign. Three Commonwealth battalions were virtually wiped out, and
Commonwealth and Free French losses totalled 4600 men, while for their part,
the French suffered six thousand casualties before deciding that their position
was hopeless, that honor had been thoroughly satisfied, and that they could lay
down their arms. To put these figures into perspective, British losses suffered
in the concurrent Operation Battleaxe conducted against Rommel totalled only
969 officers and men. At a time in the war when Britain was deploying only very
small forces overseas, Exporter was one of her bloodier fights.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Ordre
de bataille au 8 juin 1941 - VICHY<br />
</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Armée de l'air <br />
Groupes de Chasse <br />
G.C. III/6 Dewoitine 520 : 25 Rayack (Liban) <br />
G.C. I/7 Morane 406 : 12 Alep-Nerab (Syrie) + 6 Estabel (Liban) <br />
<br />
Groupes de Bombardement <br />
G.B. I/39 Glenn-Martin 167 F : 10 Rayack (Liban) + 2 Madjaloun (Liban) <br />
E.B. 3/39 Bloch MB 200 : 6 Madjaloun (Liban) <br />
<br />
Groupes de Reconnaissance / Observation <br />
G.R. II/39 Potez 63.11 : 12 Damas-Mezzé (Syrie) <br />
G.A.O. 583 Potez 63.11 : 5 Alep-Nerab (Syrie) <br />
E.O. 592 Potez 25TOE : 6 Rayack (Lebanon) <br />
E.O. 593 Potez 25TOE : 6 Alep-Nerab (Syrie) <br />
E.O. 594 Potez 25TOE : 6 Damas-Mezzé (Syrie) <br />
E.O. 595 Potez 25TOE : 6 Palmyre (Syrie) <br />
E.O. 596 Potez 25TOE : 4 Deir ez-Zor (Syrie) <br />
<br />
Escadrilles de l'Aéronautique Navale <br />
Esc. 19S Loire 130 : 5 Tripoli (Liban) <br />
<br />
Marine <br />
2 DD : Valmy , Guepard ( Beyrout ) <br />
3 S/M : Souffleur , ? , ? ( Beyrout ) <br />
quelques petits navires ( 1 patrouilleur , 1 corvette ? - A VERIFIER ) <br />
<br />
Armée de Terre <br />
Infanterie <br />
-6e REI ( Homs ) ( 4bns+3 batteries d'artillerie de la legion ) <br />
-24e RMIC(Tripoli )(3bns) <br />
-22e RTA(Liban )(3bns) <br />
-29e RTA(Liban )(3bns) <br />
-16e RTT(Syrie du sud )(3bns) <br />
-17e RTS(Syrie du sud )(3bns) <br />
-1e RTM ( Syrie ) ( uniquement le Ve Bn )) <br />
- 3 Bns de Chasseurs Libanais ( Liban )<br />
- 8 Bns du Levant (Syrie )<br />
<br />
Cavalerie <br />
-4e RST (Liban )<br />
-1e RSM (Syrie )<br />
-8e RSA (Liban )<br />
-50 escadrons de cavalerie irreguliere ( druzes , libanais , kurdes etc )
regroupés en 4 groupes d'escadrons de ligne , 6 groupes d'escadrons Druzes et 8
escadrons Circassiens/Tcherkesses ) ( tous en syrie )<br />
-3 Cies meharistes ( Syrie )<br />
<br />
Blindés <br />
-6e RCA ( 45 R35 ) 2 esc chars + 2 esc automitrailleuses ( Liban )<br />
-7e RCA ( 45 R35 ) 2 esc chars + 2 esc automitrailleuses ( Syrie )<br />
<br />
Artillerie<br />
- RAC Levant ( Liban )<br />
- 1e RAM ( Syrie )<br />
- Groupe d'Alepp ( Syrie )<br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ordre de bataille au 8 juin 1941 -
Forces Franco-Anglo-Australo-Indiennes<br />
</b><br />
Force "Gent" <br />
Commandant ; General Legentilhomme <br />
Chef d'etat major : lt-Col Koenig <br />
Cie QG50 : Cap Bélan <br />
<br />
-1e Bde FFL ( Col cazaud ) <br />
1e Bataillon de Légion Etrangère : Commandant Amilakvary <br />
Bataillon de Marche n°1 : Commandant Delange <br />
Bataillon de Marche n°3 : Commandant Garbay <br />
<br />
-2e Bde FFL ( Col Génin ) <br />
1e Bataillon d'Infanterie de Marine : Commandant de Chevigné <br />
Bataillon de Marche n°2 : Commandant de Roux <br />
Bataillon de Marche n°4 : Commandant Bouillon <br />
1e Bataillon de Fusiliers Marins : Capitaine Corv. Détroyat <br />
1e Batterie Artillerie : Capitaine Laurent-Champrosay <br />
1e Esc. Spahis.Marocains : Capitaine Jourdier <br />
1e Cie de Chars ( et motards ) Capitaine Volvey <br />
Section de Sapeurs-Mineurs : Lieutenant Desmaisons <br />
<br />
- Groupe d'escadrons Tcherkesses : Colonel Collet ( 453h) <br />
<br />
-1e Cie Transmissions : Capitaine Renard <br />
-101e Cie Auto : Lieutenant Dulau <br />
-Intendance : Intendant Bouton <br />
-Gr. Exploitation : Lieutenant de Guillebon <br />
-Service de Santé : Méd.Cap. Delavenne <br />
-Ambulance chirurgicale : Méd.Cdt Vernier <br />
-Hôpital de campagne : Hadfield-Spears Méd.Cdt Fruchaud <br />
<br />
- 5e Bde Indienne ( General Lloyd ) <br />
1st Royal Fusiliers <br />
<br />
4/6th Rajputana Rifles <br />
3/1st Punjab Rifles <br />
1st Field Regiment, Royal Artillery: <br />
9th Field Battery, Royal Artillery <br />
11th Field Battery, Royal Artillery <br />
171th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery <br />
18th Company, Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners <br />
<br />
-2 bns britanniques- A IDENTIFIER <br />
-Un Escadron des Royal Dragoons (en automitrailleuses) .numero non specifié - A
IDENTIFIER<br />
-Un Bataillon d'infanterie Australien - A IDENTIFIER , probablement le 2/25<br />
-Une Compagnie lourde de mitrailleuses Australienne -2/3rd Australian
Machine-Gun Battalion <br />
-Un Escadron de Scouts Australien (automitrailleuses) -6th Australian
Divisional Cavalry Regiment (light tanks) <br />
-Un groupe d'artillerie Britannique- A IDENTIFIER <br />
<br />
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ <br />
7th Australian Division ( Major-General J D Lavarack) <br />
-25th Australian Infantry Brigade <br />
2/25th Battalion<br />
2/31st Battalion <br />
2/33rd Battalion <br />
-21st Australian Infantry Brigade: <br />
2/14th Battalion <br />
2/16th Battalion <br />
2/27th Battalion <br />
-2/3rd Australian Machine-Gun Battalion ( moins 1 Cie ) <br />
-2/2nd Pioneers <br />
-2/4th Australian Field Regiment <br />
-2/5th Australian Field Regiment <br />
-2/6th Australian Field Regiment <br />
-2/2nd Antitank Regiment: 6th AT battery et 7th AT Battery <br />
-170th Light Anti-Aircraft battery <br />
-6th Australian Divisional Cavalry Regiment (light tanks) ( moins 1 sqd ) <br />
-2/5th Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers <br />
-2/6th Field Company, Royal Australian Engineers <br />
-2/5th Field Park Company, Royal Australian Engineers <br />
-9th Australian Divisional Cavalry Regiment . <br />
<br />
Forces aeriennes<br />
No. 11 Squadron Blenheim IV<br />
No. 80 Squadron Hurricanes<br />
No. 3 R.A.A.F. Squadron Tomahawks <br />
No. 208 Army Co-operation Sq. Hurricanes <br />
X Flight Gladiators <br />
detachement du 815 Sq., Swordfish <br />
No. 84 Squadron Blenheim <br />
<br />
Presents mais non assignés a Exporter<br />
803 Squadron, Fulmars<br />
829 Squadron, Swordfish/Albacore<br />
<br />
Forces navales<br />
Force B: <br />
Croiseurs legers Phoebe et Ajax<br />
Destroyers Kandahar , Kimberley , Jackal , Janus<br />
<br />
Force C: <br />
Croiseur AA Coventry<br />
Transport d'assaut Glengyle<br />
Destroyers Ilex , Isis , Hotspur , Hero</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-72922936805862021962015-06-16T21:36:00.000-07:002015-06-16T21:36:12.529-07:00No.148 (Special Duties) Squadron in the Balkans<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhheTGt1N3Rq56QqX2CUiP5bn_b_wZ53gAkgsafklOqc3eYurLU9kE-IZfrs-KA8uZ2gbklT7avPb3EcOKfwYWcRdMSLuxy_TRsoaoH9X0DuvagCgSd1kQeH8GEWJdXNL_dmPtdKC6hpAZq/s1600/148_Squadron_Halifax_Italy_WWII_IWM_CNA_3231.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhheTGt1N3Rq56QqX2CUiP5bn_b_wZ53gAkgsafklOqc3eYurLU9kE-IZfrs-KA8uZ2gbklT7avPb3EcOKfwYWcRdMSLuxy_TRsoaoH9X0DuvagCgSd1kQeH8GEWJdXNL_dmPtdKC6hpAZq/s400/148_Squadron_Halifax_Italy_WWII_IWM_CNA_3231.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
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<h3>
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<i>The supply missions flown over the Balkans by No. 148
(Special Duties) Squadron provided a vital lifeline to the Yugoslavian
partisans.</i></h3>
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The role of the Royal Air Force 'Special Duties' squadrons
in World War II was to supply the Allied resistance movements with the guns,
ammunition, food and intelligence agents they needed to wage their undercover
war against the Axis. The work was very hazardous drops were made from low
level and the light aircraft were very vulnerable to anti‑aircraft and machine‑gun
fire. Of these squadrons, perhaps the best known are Nos. 138 and 161, famous
for their dropping of agents by Lysander aircraft into Occupied France. But
special units operated in other theatres of the war, and on 4 January 1944 No. 148 Squadron, RAF,
had the honour of being made a Special Duties squadron. Late in January they
moved to Brindisi
in Italy
and prepared for supply operations to Poland, northern Italy, the
Balkans and Greece.</div>
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The move to Brindisi
placed No. 148 Squadron under the control of No.334 Wing. However, the bulk of
the Balkan operations were undertaken by the US No. 62 Group operating Dakotas, which were more suitable than the Halifaxes of
No. 148 Squadron for short trips. To give the squadron a better short‑flight
capability, a Lysander flight was formed. Named C Flight, it was commanded by
Flight Lieutenant Vaughan‑Fowler, DFC, a veteran of the Lysander operations
mounted by No.161 Squadron from Tempsford in England.</div>
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The partisan were in need of vehicles, and in April 1944 the
squadron attempted to develop a technique for dropping a jeep from a Halifax.
The bomb doors were opened and the jeep was suspended in the bomb bay. However,
the possibility of damage to the aircraft should a vehicle snag during the drop
led to the project being cancelled.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 7 April, the officer commanding No. 334 Wing, Group
Captain Rankin, DSO, took part in his first operation as captain of an
aircraft. His target was Durazzo in Albania, and in May many more
operations were mounted against targets in Yugoslavia and Greece. The
range of the Halifax
allowed over 10,5001b of stores to be carried, as only a minimum of fuel was
required for each trip. However, disaster later struck the squadron when Rankin
crashed his Halifax
on take‑off. The aircraft burnt out, but all the crew escaped safely except the
flight engineer, Sergeant Martin, who was badly hurt with a broken leg.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During the night supply drops, the crew member who was
arguably most at risk was the despatcher. Operating in total darkness in order
to ensure that no light showed from, the aircraft when the bomb bay was open,
he was obliged to attach himself to the plane via a static line and a rope tied
to his parachute harness. A green light would go on and the parachuted loads
would be forced out as rapidly as possible. A good despatcher, assisted by the
Wireless operator, could drop half a ton of supplies three seconds.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The run‑up to the dropping point was controlled by the bomb‑aimer.
The Halifax would begin the run over the target with the bomb doors open, the
flaps partly down and the engine throttled back. With the Bomb‑aimer calling
out instructions, the pilot would finally call on the despatcher to release the
containers in the bomb bay. Dropping height was set at between 500 and 800ft,
far below 500ft the parachutes would have insufficient time to open, and above
800ft dropping accuracy would deteriorate.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The rear gunner would act <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">as observer, reporting</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>whether
the containers had overshot or undershot the landing zone. In the development
of dropping techniques the squadron owed much to Flying Officer Guest, whose
experience had been gained on 82 missions, a total of 615 hours on operations.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
At the end of May 1944 the area of top priority became
Yugoslavia. The squadron was informed that the Germans had mounted a major
offensive aimed at eliminating Marshal Tito's headquarters near the coast, and
there was bitter fighting in its defence. A maximum effort was required of the
Special Duties squadron to keep the partisans supplied with arms, ammunition
and especially food, since the Germans had been destroying crops and livestock
to starve them out. On 28 May, Tito called for urgent drops to assist the
partisans' blocking of the German advance. Of the 13 aircraft sent, 11</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
successfully dropped supplies, although the Germans later
overran the target area.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Eleven more aircraft then delivered supplies to a point 15
miles away. The first six aircraft were successful, but as the seventh, flown
by Pilot Officer Leleu in Halifax JP 239, started to drop its load, Leleu saw
several aircraft overhead with their navigation lights on. Below, parachutes
were showering around the target accompanied by coloured parachute flares.
Everything suggested that a paratroop landing was taking place, and so he
called off the drop and shouted, 'Let's get the hell out of here.' The four
aircraft following behind saw only scattered fires on the drop zone and,
receiving no flashing signals from the ground, they brought their loads back to
base.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Despite this partial failure, 11 aircraft were despatched
two days later on 30 May, one of them piloted by the undaunted Leleu. Nine
completed their drops, and on 31 May members of the squadron were told at a
briefing that they would be able to make squadron history that very night. Up
to that point in the war, the squadron's record of sorties achieved in a month
was 205, attained in September 1943. In May 1944 the squadron had flown 196
sorties, and if all 13 of their aircraft flew that night the record would be
broken. Also, the record total weight of supplies dropped in a month was 284
tons, a record set in August 1943. No. 148 Squadron had dropped 272 tons that
month, and with the prospect of another 25 tons dropped that night, both
records could be broken.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This the squadron duly achieved, and a message was sent by
Air Marshal Slessor, Deputy Acting Commander‑in‑Chief of <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">the Mediterranean</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>Allied Air Forces. Congratulating them on their excellent record
for supply missions, it ended: 'Well done all, keep it up!' On 1 June the
Balkan Air Force was formed, specifically for the task of supplying Tito's
partisans. It was learnt on 12 June that the drops of 28/29 May had been
crucial to the continued success of the partisans in the face of the relentless
German siege. The partisans had been living solely on the <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">supplies of food dropped, and their
commander,</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>Major‑General
Rodic, had sent a message saying simply: 'Thanks to all of you for your great
effort.'</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The squadron was, at this time, experiencing difficulty
caused by aircraft tires splitting on the rough runways at Brindisi. No, 334 Wing heard that there was a
supply of tires to be found at Bari, and with great enterprise the men managed
to purloin 14 tires and have them fitted to their own aircraft. The owners of
the tires, No.204 Group, were very unhappy about the hijack and wanted them
back. The only reply they received from No. 334 Wing and No. 148 Squadron was,
'the show must go on!'</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In October 1944 it was decided to begin daylight operations
using the Sugar‑ or S‑phone, a radio device with which an aircraft could
communicate with an agent or operator on the ground. Supply missions were to be
led by a special force operator in the leading S‑phone aircraft, who would make
contact with the ground and convey instructions to the other aircraft. All the
squadron's wireless operators were given S‑phone training, and the first
successful mission of this type was completed on 18 November.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The squadron's operations over the Balkans were not without
their adventures. On 16 October, Sergeant Edwards crashed his Halifax 100ft below the summit of a 4000ft
Yugoslavian mountain. One survivor of the crash was Sergeant Bromage, who
climbed down to a partisan village and picked up a rescue party. Together, they
helped two more members of the crew down the mountain and eventually they all
reached safety Bromage was able to board a plane to Bari, arriving there on 8 November.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In another incident, Flight Sergeant Uttley went missing on
5 November during a mission to Yugoslavia.
On the 8th he returned to the squadron His engine had caught fire, so he had
jettisoned the main load and set course for the Yugoslavian coast. Ditching
successfully, the crew had paddled in a dinghy to the line of the shore.
Spotting a Liberator aircraft, they had fired Very cartridges and put out
f1orescine colouring on the water. The Liberator had seen them and stayed until
an Air Sea Rescue launch arrived to pick them up.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The S‑phone really came into its own in December. On the
26th, six contacts were made at Mrkopalj and Grabnovica in Yugoslavia, and
all the drops that followed were successful. Flight Sergeant Brown, flying as S‑phone
and wireless operator with Pilot Officer Robinson in Halifax JP 278, reported
that the efficiency of the drop was greatly increased by the detailed
instructions given by the ground operator. On the 27th, three contacts were
made at Grabnovica and, despite solid cloud cover, the drops were 100 per cent
successful due to S‑phone contact.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 4
January 1945, Pilot Officer Walker was part of a force of seven
aircraft detailed to drop supplies and one agent into Yugoslavia. The
aircraft were all successful and, having seen their agent stand up and wave to
the crew, Walker
went on to carry out a second drop over Sisak in northern Yugoslavia.
However, on the way Walker's
aircraft was hit on three occasions by flak and caught fire. Ordered to bail
out, the wireless operator, Flight Sergeant Rowe, was captured, and the bomb‑aimer,
Sergeant Bromley, was found shot through by bullets, having been fired upon as
he parachuted down. Two more of Walker's
crew, Sergeants Breen and Towner, were found by partisans and escorted through
German lines to Cazma, a journey of about 11 hours. The next day they proceeded
to Grabnovica, where they stayed until 18 January, when a Dakota flew in under
an escort of P‑51 Mustangs and took them to Bari.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 17
January 1945, No. 148 Squadron was requested to fly supplies to a
prisoner‑of‑war camp containing 1000 prisoners at Lazarina in Greece. Nine Halifaxes were sent with
medical supplies, blankets and clothing, only to find dense cloud from 700 to
10,000ft. One aircraft approaching the coast was thrown tail first down from
800ft to 100ft. Forced to return by the weather conditions, the aircraft flew
again on the 18th, and this time four Halifaxes
succeeded in dropping supplies from 500ft between breaks in the cloud. A second
drop was completed on the 19th, but on the same day a mission over Yugoslavia by
10 Halifaxes
ran into accurate light flak and one aircraft was badly damaged, the flight
engineer receiving a head wound.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Later in January, messages of thanks were received by the
squadron for their supply work On the 21st the Air Officer Commanding Greece
thanked them for the drops on Lazarina, and a letter was also received from one
of the prisoners, Sergeant Kelly, who told them that if his fellow prisoners
met the aircrews they would buy them all the pints of beer they wanted. The
squadron replied by saying that if it had been possible they would have
included a few barrels in the drops, wishing them good luck and conveying the
hope that they would soon be free.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the 24th, a signal was received concerning the flak
received on 19 January. It had been 'friendly' Soviet fire, and the message
read:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Due to this being a
new drop area, all had been warned not to fire on four‑engined aircraft. On
arrival of the first plane, one or two scattered groups opened fire on the
plane and the parachutes, thinking they were enemy parachutists. General
Matetic, the Russian commander, is very perturbed and requests he be personally
informed of the progress of the wounded airman. The excellent dropping caused a
tremendous sensation and impressed the Russians'</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 3 February, the Lysander Flight was asked to pick up a
wounded airman. the task was given to Warrant Officer Dalzell. When he arrived
over the landing zone he found it covered by snow but he landed safely, only to
get bogged down in the mud. Having unloaded some 5001b of supplies, the
partisans dug the aircraft out and he finally took off for Biferno in northern Italy.
Following a drop of further supplies a message was received from the combat
area:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Heavy enemy attack
yesterday from the north on Daruvan but successfully beaten off. This entirely
due to your prompt action in answering our call from here for mortar bombs.
Enemy using 100mm howitzers and artillery.'</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the 22nd a female agent had to be dropped into Yugoslavia.
This posed a slight problem as pretty girls were in short supply, so an honest
married captain was asked to do the job. The records do not tell us who this
lucky man was. On 23 February a message arrived, informing the squadron that
she had landed safely and naming her as Section Officer Sturnock of the Women's
Auxiliary Air Force. Once again, No 148 Squadron had demonstrated that in no
way was it to be outclassed by its famous cousins, No. 138 and 161 Squadrons,
in the performance of Special Duties.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">THE AUTHOR </b>Alan
Cooper is an aviation historian who has written four books, one of them
concerning the legendary bombing raid on the Ruhr
dams by the Lancasters of No. 617 Squadron, RAF.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-41836759727794382682015-06-16T21:20:00.002-07:002015-06-16T21:21:09.863-07:00Jugoslav Partisan Air Force<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Jugoslav Partisan Aviation:</span> Because of
the guerrilla nature of partisan warfare, there were little prospects for the
Jugoslav partisans to form their own aviation, although there were some cases
when supporters of the National Liberation Struggle escaped along with their
planes from the Croatian Air Force to the partisans. After two unsuccessful
attempts at the end of 1941, the pilots Franjo Kluz and Rudi Cajavec, with his
mechanic Milos Jazbec, managed to defect to the partisans. They escaped on 23
May, 1942, with their planes <i>Potez 25</i> (Franjo Kluz) and <i>Breguet 19</i>
(Cajavec and Jazbec) from Banja Luka (north-western Bosnia) to the recently
liberated town of Prijedor. These two defections symbolize the beginning of the
Jugoslav partisan aviation. From the airfield in Prijedor and from another
airfield near the village of Medjuvodje (near Kozara), these two partisan
pilots took off on 4 June, 1942, on their first sortie against the enemy. Kluz
was accompanied by his mechanic Mitrecic, and equipped his (until then)
un-armed <i>Potez</i> with a machine gun "Sarec" as well as with some
pipe bombs (to be dropped by hand) that were produced by partisans at the
"Ljubija" Mine (the largest iron ore mine in all of Jugoslavia).
Cajavec was killed during the first mission, when he flew too close to the
Banja Luka Airfield and town. He was wounded and forced to land near the
village of Kadinjani. In order to avoid capture he shot himself. His mechanic,
Milos Jazbec, was captured and later executed in Zagreb. Kluz managed to
complete three more missions, during which he attacked with his machine gun and
pipe bombs enemy transport columns and garrisons. On 6 July, 1942, his plane
was spotted and destroyed on the ground by a German fighter at the airfield
near Lusca Palanka.<br />
<br />
Until Italy's capitulation in September of 1943, the partisans were unable
to form any new air force. This changed after the Italian capitulation. The
partisans captured at the airfield at Gorica quite a large number of planes,
from which one was successfully used by the Operative Headquarter of the
Primorska Zone (<i>Operativni Stab Primorske Cone</i> in Slovene), while two
other captured planes were incorporated into Air Base of Main Headquarter for
Croatia. Especially interesting is the story of one small seaplane fleet of the
Royal Jugoslav Naval Air Force which was captured by the Italians during the
April War of 1941, and then remained untouched at Divulje until the Italian
capitulation. Partisans captured the seaplanes together with a small support
ship, and hid the fleet during the day in various bays near Trogir or some liberated
Adriatic islands. By night the partisan naval pilot named Ciril Vrabic had
flown, between 11 September and 6 October of 1943, some 30 missions. During the
missions he usually observed enemy moves on both land and sea, but he also
transported messengers and attacked enemy columns and bases from Neretva Valley
to Sibenik. In October and November of 1943, two other planes from the Croatian
Air Force defected to the partisans. One of them was later used for training of
personnel of 1. Air Base of NOVJ (Jugoslav National Liberation Army), while the
second plane (a <i>Do-17</i> bomber) was assigned the task of taking a
delegation of the Supreme Headquarter of Jugoslav Liberation Army to the Allied
Command in Italy. Unfortunately the plane was spotted just before take-off from
the Glamocko Polje Airfield and destroyed by a German recon plane. This took
place on 27 November, 1943, and Ivo Lola Ribar was killed in this attack (he
was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Jugoslavia
since 1940, a member of the Committee's Political Bureau since 1941, and the
leader of the Jugoslav Communist Youth Association).<br />
<br />
On 18 August, 1944, on the liberated Adriatic island of Vis was formed a
Liaison Squadron. This squadron performed mostly liaison functions between the
Supreme Headquarter of Jugoslav Army and its units on the
battlefields/front-lines. Until November of 1944, when the squadron was moved
to Belgrade, it performed 1 200 missions/sorties. This squadron had some minor
one-engine planes as well as one <i>Junkers Ju-52</i> which was captured at
Niksic, Montenegro. A second Jugoslav partisan aviation unit was similar to the
Liaison Squadron; it was the Squadron of the 5-th Corps of NOVJ, which was
formed on 21 September, 1944, from planes captured at Zaluzani Airfield near
Banja Luka. This new squadron consisted of a couple of <i>Morane MS406</i>
fighters, as well as of two-engine <i>Caproni</i> planes, some <i>Bcker</i>
training planes, and <i>BE-51</i> sport planes. These aircraft participated in
their first action on the very same day when the squadron was formed! They
participated in an attack on the Banja Luka Fortress, where surrounded <i>Ustasa</i>
units fought very hard. When the Germans later pushed the partisans out of
Banja Luka, the squadron was moved to other airfields in western and eastern
Bosnia. It performed 90 combat flights, and captured two more planes; a <i>Junkers
Ju-87</i> and an <i>FP-2</i>. During all this time the squadron was supplied
with fuel, ammunition, and other essentials, only from the areas which were
under control of the 5-th Corps of NOVJ; this proved that aviation can even be
used by partisans themselves in the conditions of partisan warfare. This
squadron's successes in battle were never any great, nevertheless, its actions
were a tremendous boost of morale for the partisans and civilians on the
ground.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Regular Jugoslav Partisan Air Force:</span>
Italian capitulation in September of 1943 combined with Allied landings in
Italy, made it possible to form new and regular partisan air force units, which
of course dependent mainly on Allied material and operative support. In October
of 1944, the Supreme Headquarter appealed through the "Free
Yugoslavia" Radio Station to all the Jugoslav pilots in the Near East
(Egypt) and in the Croatian Air Force to join the Partisan Air Force. All those
who responded gathered in Livno, where on 14 October, 1943, was formed the 1-st
Air Base of NOV (National Liberation Army). Soon gathered about 60 pilots and,
after an agreement with the Western Allies, they were transferred to Bari
(southern Italy) at the beginning of January, 1944. There began the basic air
training of more than 220 Jugoslavs.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of March 1944, all pilots were transferred by ships to
North Africa. On 22 April, 1944, on the Benina Airfield near Benghazi (northern
Libya) was formed RAF Command First Yugoslav Fighter Squadron (or in RAF's own
records the 352-nd RAF Squadron). On 1 July, 1944, was formed the Second
Yugoslav Fighter Squadron (the 351-st RAF Squadron). Following intense
training, they were given 16 <i>Spitfire V</i> and 16 <i>Hawker Hurricane IV</i>
planes. These units contained several ex-Royal Jugoslav Air Force pilots who
until now served in various U.S. and British air force units. An agreement was
concluded between the Western Allies and the partisans, which stipulated that
these two units confine their area of operations exclusively to Jugoslavia.<br />
<br />
The Spitfires of the First Squadron made their first combat flight on 18
August, 1944, from Canne Airfield in Italy. They took-off under the command of
their Squadron Commander Milet Protic. They flew over the Adriatic Sea to
Peljesac Peninsula, where they attacked German coastal positions. Until the end
of the war, the squadron made 364 combat missions with about 1208 flights. In
the process they suffered heavy casualties: from the 21 pilots who completed
the training in Libya seven were killed; German anti-aircraft artillery managed
to shoot-down nine planes and damaged four other ones.<br />
<br />
The Second Squadron underwent special training with the use of rocket
missiles, which were at that time the standard armament of the Hurricane
fighters. It made its first combat flight on 13 October, 1944. Until the end of
the war, the squadron performed 978 combat flights during which it attacked
various enemy columns, ships, and artillery positions. They also frequently
supported NOVJ infantry in its operations on the ground. Three pilots were
killed and the squadron lost nine planes.<br />
<br />
The earliest sorties were conducted from the bases in Italy, but soon both
squadrons moved to the liberated Vis Island on the Adriatic Sea. Later, in the
beginning of 1945, they were both moved to the Skabrnje Airfield near Zadar
(central Dalmatian coast). These moves increased the aircraft's reach further
into Jugoslavia. The damages inflicted on the enemy by both squadrons were very
high; the destroyed enemy equipment included over 270 motor vehicles, 29
locomotives, 172 railway carriages, 52 various seagoing targets (like ships,
tugboats, and etc.), and 100 other vehicles. Six railway stations, two bridges,
and one power plant were also destroyed. Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-47844441098856768382015-06-16T21:18:00.003-07:002015-06-16T21:18:46.738-07:00Spitfire vs Yak<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
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mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
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<![endif]--><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">At the end of the WW II,
and in the late forties, Yugoslavia had quite a number of fighter types in
service. One squadron of Spitfires MkVc Trop, and one squadron of Hurricanes
were incorporated in the newly created Yugoslav Air Force from the RAF, along
with three Spitfires Mk IXc left over by the British.<br />
<br />
In late 1944 Soviet Union began training two newly formed units of Yugoslav
airmen, one on YAK fighters, the other on Il 2 attack aircraft. The units were
operational in the closing stages of WW II, in the spring of 1945.<br />
<br />
Yugoslavia had at that time both YAK-1, and YAK-3 although the former was more
numerous. YAK 9 was received later, as well.<br />
<br />
Spitfires and Yaks were compared in mock dog-fights for example during the
Sumadija maneuvers in 1949, immediately after the breaking up of relations with
the USSR. An accident also occurred when one of the pilots flew into the
ground. The Spitfire and the YAK were especially compared regarding the climb and
turn radius, the former preferring to fly maneuvers in the horizontal plane,
the latter being lighter exploiting the vertical maneuvers.<br />
<br />
Due to the lack of spares which hit the air force in late forties, Spitfires
were withdrawn first to recon duties, and later scrapped, while YAKs continued
a bit longer, being more numerous.<br />
<br />
At that time, which is also interesting, Yugoslavia had in service beside
Spitfires, Hurricanes and Yaks, also the Me109G, and the domestic S-49A and
S-49C (based on pre war IK-3) were delivered to bridge the gap until the jets
came from the West in early fifties. In the early 50's came the P-47D
Thunderbolt, too, which was the last propeller driven, single engined single
seat fighter to serve in the Air Force, mostly as ground attacker.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-18857915275625154532015-06-16T21:17:00.004-07:002015-06-16T21:17:59.033-07:00BAF Hurricanes and Spitfires<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<![endif]--><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">There were two Yugoslav
squadrons in the RAF during WW II, 352 squadron (Prva eskadrila NOVJ) and 351
squadron (Druga eskadrila NOVJ).<br />
<br />
The so called Prva eskadrila NOVJ (The first squadron of the National
Liberation Army of Yugoslavia) initially trained on Harvards and later on
Hurricanes Mk II C in North Africa, and re equipped with Spitfire MkVc for
operations. They also had a few Mk Vb which were passed over to other units as
they standardized on MkVc by September 1944.<br />
<br />
The so called Druga eskadrila NOVJ (The second squadron of the National
Liberation Army of Yugoslavia) trained on Hurricane MkIIc, and re equipped with
Hurricane Mk IV RP. Hurricane Mk IV RP were used extensively in the Balkans until the end of the war. Mk IIc were used just for training in Africa.<br />
<br />
Most of the aircraft in both squadrons were in continental camouflage of Dark
Green, Dark Sea Grey and Sea Grey Medium, however there were aircraft in
tropical camouflage of Mid Stone, Dark Earth and Azure Blue (a Hurricane MkIIc
in Africa, LD116/A, Spitfire MkVc HM592/G). All the Hurricanes had tropical
filters, while all but one Spitfire had the Vokes filter (MH592 had the Aboukir
type).</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br />
One spitfire had the unusual combination of Azure Blue undersurfaces with Dark
Green and Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces.<br />
<br />
Markings were modified from the standard British ones by adding a five pointed
red star in the place of the red circle on British markings. These were the
ONLY machines operational in the RAF which did not carry the standard RAF
markings.<br />
<br />
On spitfires there were three types of markings on upper wing surfaces:<br />
1. Red star inscribed in blue disk, no white (early operations autumn 1944.)<br />
2. Red star inscribed in blue disk, but white disk added also, similar to a
star inscribed in pre war British roundel, in the blue disk.<br />
3. As above, but red star inscribed in white disk, instead of blue (late war,
spring 1945).<br />
<br />
Hurricanes in Africa had type 1 or 2, in the Balkans mostly type 2 or 3, some
even had a yellow surround to the star in Africa. <br />
<br />
Undersurface markings were almost universally type 2 on Spits, except on one,
the same also on Hurricanes. Fuselage marking on Spits was essentially type C1
RAF roundel with red star inscribed, but more varied on the Hurricanes,
sometimes with very wide white area.<br />
<br />
Tail markings were reworked from RAF fin flash, by widening the white area to
pre 1942 standard, and had a star inscribed in white. Sometimes, the red and
blue colours were reversed as well. No squadron codes were worn, just the
aircraft letter.</span>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-35409686022520203152015-06-16T21:14:00.002-07:002015-06-16T21:14:35.977-07:00 Yugoslav Air Force 1944/45<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP55R9SXXcIYh99u7Y8oftPajxmkQAOUMpKfO5s2jhyyv9X8zX4O5k9SMUwIJRVreQBSavTniBAalXgMhRcHgLCAdCMgZi9HfazvTtSsL6v-RmClO7bRiVOXJUcwuN9oPXgftfCM22uFQL/s1600/111_3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="145" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP55R9SXXcIYh99u7Y8oftPajxmkQAOUMpKfO5s2jhyyv9X8zX4O5k9SMUwIJRVreQBSavTniBAalXgMhRcHgLCAdCMgZi9HfazvTtSsL6v-RmClO7bRiVOXJUcwuN9oPXgftfCM22uFQL/s400/111_3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><i>112.Lovacki Puk</i></b></div>
<br />
After collapse of the Romanian Front in the August 1944, the Red Army was close to Yugoslavia and it entered its territory with Tito´s approval. The 17th Air Army supported operations of the Soviets in eastern Serbia. Based on the Yugoslav-Soviet agreement from November 16, 1944 the 10th Guard Assault Air Division, the 236th Fighter Air Division and the 9th Area Air Base were singled out for the support requirements of the Yugoslav Army. This newly formed the Group of Air Divisions NOVJ, known also as Group Vitruk (Gen. Andrej Nikiforovic Vitruk, commander 10th Assault Air Division), was augmented by command, flying and ground personnel from Yugoslav units.<br />
<br />
Theoretical and practical training was by experienced Soviet flying instructors. These divisions also received Yugoslav designation on December 29, 1944 as follows: the 10th Division became the Yugoslav 42nd Assault Air Division NOVJ and the 236th Division became the 11th Fighter Air Division NOVJ. Group Vitruk made about 2098 combat flights from the November 1944 to the first half of January 1945 – this was with all-Soviet crews. In the second half of January 5 to 6 Yugoslav pilots were placed into the each Fighter Regiment. The more experienced Yugoslav trainees were gradually exchanged for the Soviet crews, staff and technical personnel. The first combat missions of Yugoslav pilots in cockpits of Soviet aircraft were operational from January 17, 1945. The first independent Yugoslav unit within the Group Vitruk was formed on April 1, 1945 at Klenak airfield from the 112th Fighter and 422nd Assault Regiments. It was this Air Group South that would support the final offensive of the Yugoslav Army.<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
</div>
<br />
The final Yugoslav offensive was marked by political juggling of the Allies. The British, for example, did not want the Yugoslavs to enter Trieste and to cross pre-war Yugoslav-Italian border and so they supported the 4th Yugoslav Army with the aircraft of the 1st and 2nd Eskadrila NOVJ only till the end April 1945. The Soviets on the other hand delayed the passing over the aircraft and their technical support to Yugoslavian forces. The Yugoslav crew of Soviet air units conducted 1445 combat sorties, 9 aircraft were shot down, 9 pilots and gunners died. Much bigger losses were caused by crashes, failures and right-offs. The Yugoslav pilots in Soviet machines saw German aircraft three times only, at which time the German aircraft successfully evaded. It shall be pointed out that the Yugoslav pilots ended the war with a big handicap of being without combat experience from aerial combats.
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
The Staff of Air Force of People´s Liberation Army of Yugoslavia<br />
Birth: October 29, 1944<br />
Commander: Maj-Gen. France Pirc<br />
Second in Command: Col. Bozo Lazarevic<br />
Chief of the Staff: Col. Miodrag Lozic </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
42nd Assault Air Division<br />
Birth: December 29, 1944, performed from January 5, 1945<br />
Place: Novi Sad, Prigrevica (from March 25, 1945), Kalinovac (from May 10,
1945)<br />
Commander: <br />
Col. Bozo Lazarevic<br />
Col. Jevrem Bjelica (from March 17, 1945)<br />
Political Commissar:<br />
Lt.Col. Ljubo Momcilovic<br />
Maj. Enver Cemalovic (from March 17, 1945) </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
421st Assault Regiment<br />
Birth: December 20, 1944<br />
Place: Lacarak, Krnjesevci (from January 19, 1945), Zemun (from February 9,
1945), Nadalj (from March 10, 1945), Backi Brestovac (from March 15, 1945),
Sombor (from March 30, 1945), Rajlovac (from May 9, 1945), Lacarak (from May
21, 1945)<br />
Commander: Maj. Dusan Bozovic<br />
Political Commissar: Lt. Vinko Sever </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
422nd Assault Regiment<br />
Birth: December 4, 1944<br />
Place: Novi Sad, Klenak (from March 29, 1945), Magyarmecske, Hungary (from May
4, 1945)<br />
Commander: Capt. Krsto Lakicevic<br />
Political Commissar: Petar Raznatovic </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br />
423rd Assault Regiment<br />
Birth: December 9, 1944<br />
Place: Ruma, Gospodjinci (from March 10, 1945), Backi Brestovac (from March 26,
1945), Kalinovac (from May 8, 1945), Pleso (from May 12, 1945)<br />
Commander: Maj. Milan Malnaric (died), Maj. Blazo Kovacevic (from end of March,
1945)<br />
Political Commissar: Capt. Zlatko Frid </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br />
11th Fighter Air Division<br />
Birth: December 29, 1944, performed from January 7, 1945<br />
Place: Ruma, Sombor (from March 17, 1945), Magyarmecske, Hungary (from May 7,
1945)<br />
Commander: Maj. Arsenije Boljevic<br />
Political Commissar: Capt. Ljubisa Curgus </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br />
111th Fighter Regiment<br />
Birth: December 25, 1944<br />
Place: Novi Sad, Kupusina-Sombor (from March 28, 1945)<br />
Commander: Capt. Ljubomir Popadic<br />
Political Commissar: Capt. Milan Zrilic </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
112th Fighter Regiment<br />
Birth: December 15, 1944<br />
Place: Veliki Radinci, Nadalj (from March 11, 1945), Klenak (from March 29,
1945), Magyarmecske, Hungary (from May 4, 1945)<br />
Commander: Capt. Sava Poljanec<br />
Political Commissar: Capt. Mile Rodic </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
113th Fighter Regiment<br />
Birth: December 15, 1944<br />
Place: Ruma, Backi Brestovac (from March 16, 1945), Kalinovac (from May 8,
1945), Pleso (from May 12, 1945)<br />
Commander: Capt. Miljenko Lipovscak<br />
Political Commissar: Lt. Drago Djurickovic </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
9th Area Air Base<br />
Birth: December 29, 1944, performed from January 5, 1945<br />
Place: Novi Sad<br />
Commander: Col. Todor Uzelac<br />
Political Commissar: Maj. Meho Seremet </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 5.0pt;">
<br />
The Staff of the Group of Air Divisions of the Yugoslav Army<br />
Performed from March 17, 1945<br />
Commander: Col. Bozo Lazarevic<br />
Political Commissar: Lt.Col. Ljubo Momcilovic<br />
Chief of the Staff: Col. Zdenko Ulepic</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5883840357541862032.post-48383212257129315262015-06-16T12:11:00.001-07:002015-06-16T21:30:26.430-07:00The Allied Air Forces over Yugoslavia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNhJ89ECyAaft8SkM3BJnnmMTMfabHhonzY4ryt78Zw-Yr4_AyK_wTojn_EgQtZP6g_wDvOfRyoRGQZD1J2myIvwusETkONxtpSkzN9fBgHUWjqTHUviqV7pTuy_RJJRPCMN-fQW66u6sY/s1600/5703-Douglas-C-47.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNhJ89ECyAaft8SkM3BJnnmMTMfabHhonzY4ryt78Zw-Yr4_AyK_wTojn_EgQtZP6g_wDvOfRyoRGQZD1J2myIvwusETkONxtpSkzN9fBgHUWjqTHUviqV7pTuy_RJJRPCMN-fQW66u6sY/s400/5703-Douglas-C-47.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><b>Durmitor Operation. on 22 August 36 Allied transports escorted by 50 fighters evacuated to Bari in Italy 1,059 Partisans (mostly wounded), 16 Allied air crew who had been shot down earlier over Yugoslavia and 3 members of the Allied military mission. The transports flew in to a small strip near the tiny village of Gronja Brezna about 20 km south of Mt. Durmitor in full view of nearby German patrols. This is a good example of just how weak and ineffective the Luftwaffe had become in the Balkans.</b></i></div>
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<br />
<h3>
<span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">First defeat, then
BAF</span></h3>
Right after the invasion of the Balkans by the Axis, the Allied air forces practically vanished from Yugoslavian air space. It was not until the Allies landed in Italy in the second half of 1943, that their planes were to re-emerge in numbers. During the Allied advance up the Italian peninsula more and more British and American planes took part in actions against the Axis in Yugoslavia. In June 1944, the Allies formed the Balkan Air Force (BAF) as part of the RAF in Italy. The BAF was to operate exclusively over the Balkan Peninsula. After 1 October 1943, when bombers of the US 15th Air Force flew their first attack in the Third Reich (against Wiener Neustadt in Austria), Yugoslavian airspace became more and more important in the Allied plans. Many Allied bombers started crossing Yugoslavia to bomb various targets in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Rumania. American bombers also attacked targets in Yugoslavia. The targets were mostly communications centres like Beograd, Maribor, Nis, Leskovac, Slavonski Brod, but sometimes also unimportant cities like Zadar and Podgorica only causing damage and casualties among civilian population. Very important was also the laying of mines in the Danube River which was a very important communications lane for the German and Croatian Armies, and also for the transportation of Rumanian oil to Germany. Mines were dropped at night by one special RAF unit. The Allied Tactical Air Force also attacked targets in Yugoslavia (mainly traffic network). At first these attacks weren't coordinated with the Yugoslav authorities but later almost all Yugoslav HQ got Allied liaison officers which brought about coordination with the Yugoslav Army HQ.<br />
<br />
The First attempt at co-operation between the Allied air forces and Yugoslav partisans came in October 1943 when the Germans tried to land on Peljesac Peninsula. Later the Allied air forces also participated in the Drvar operation when they conducted more than 1000 sorties in just seven days attacking German airfields, assault columns and other targets. They successfully co-operated also in the liberation of Mostar, the Bihac-Gospic Operation, in the battles for Knin, Senj, Pag Island and several more. When the Germans began with their retreat from Greece, Albania and Bulgaria through Yugoslavia (September 1944) the Allies started their "Operation Ratweek'' where they tried to destroy the major rail line Solun-Belgrade-Ljubljana and all other railways between the Sava River and the Adriatic Sea. The partisan forces joined in this operation. The Allies mostly attacked by day and the partisans mostly by night. Very important was also contribution of the Allied Transport Aviation which supplied the Yugoslav partisans and evacuated wounded and sick. Especially well known is the action on 22 August 1944 during the Durmitor Operation when 36 C-47 land on at the airfield near village Brezna and took 1059 wounded partisans and 16 Allied airmen (who had been shot down and rescued by the partisans) to hospitals in Italy. They were escorted by 50 fighters. At this time the BAF had a strength of 9 regiments, most of the planes being fighters and light bombers.<br />
<br />
<h3>
The Soviets enter the fight</h3>
In the spring of 1944 the BAF was augmented - a Soviet detachment of 12 C-47 which were escorted by 12 Jak-9 fighters. They participated in supplying Yugoslav partisans and they also maintained connection with the Soviet Military Mission accompanying the Yugoslav HQ. One of the Soviet C-47 evacuated Tito and several other members of the Yugoslav main HQ to Italy during the Drvar Operation. Until the end of the war Allied transport planes in more than 10.000 flights carried 16400 tons of all sort of war material and above all they evacuated nearly 20.000 wounded partisans and civilians. The partisans built around 50 airfields for them. As a part of the Allied air forces after September 1943, the new Italian Air Force also took part in the air war over Yugoslavia. From October 1943 they took part in combat with around 200 planes. In 9000 flights they flew about 3000 various combat missions. They lost around 50 planes and 70 airmen. From the autumn of 1944 the Soviet Air Force also supported the Red Army and the Yugoslav (Partisan) Army in Serbia and the Vojvodina - all in all around 1500 planes from the 17th and 5th Air Armies. From 13 to 30 September 1944 the 17th Air Army was busy with destroying all major roads, railways etc. that the German Army used for the retreat of their Army Group E from Greece to Belgrade. These attacks (among other things) were so effective that the Germans had to divert their retreat through Kosovo and Bosnia.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of October 1944 the Soviet Air Force helped the Red Army and the Yugoslav Army in liberating South-East and East Serbia. They also participated in the battle for Belgrade where Soviet planes played an important role by destroying a very strong German motorised column which was trying to break through to Belgrade. Soviet Sturmovik Il-2 assault planes attacked bridges across the Sava River near Belgrade which couldn't be taken by Yugoslav partisans and the Soviet 4th Guards Motorised Corps but when this famous assault bombers came, the bridges were immediately taken. After liberating Zemun and Eastern Syrmia almost all Soviet Air Force units were transferred back to Hungary where they participated in the Soviet offensive which was carried out there shortly after. They took part in some battles in Yugoslavia from bases in Hungary, but only on a small scale. Only the two Soviet Air Force divisions that were to help form and educate the Yugoslav Air Force stayed behind: the 236th Fighter Division and the 10th Guards Assault DivisionMitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0